Educational Attainment and Gender Differences in Work–Life Balance for Couples across Europe: A Contextual Perspective

Abstract

The current article aims to explain the interrelationships between the educational attainment of individuals living in households with heterosexual partners, their work–life balance (WLB) and the macro-economic climate of the country they live in, using data from the European Social Survey. WLB is a complex concept, as it is not only determined by factors related to someone’s employment or domestic work and childcare responsibilities, but also by decisions informed by personal experiences and circumstances, subjective perceptions and preferences. Moreover, in households with cohabiting partners, this decision-making process involves certain compromises where financial incentives, interests, gender and power dynamics play an important role. Since educational attainment is positively related to labour market outcomes, such as employment and wages, while at the same time more women are participating in education and the labour market, the gender conflict on the division of work and time within households intensifies and traditional gender roles are challenged. WLB is at the heart of this conflict operating as a mechanism through which division of work and time is reconciled on the individual and household level. Results from the current article reveal great heterogeneity between the 17 European countries examined. Perhaps surprisingly, educational attainment can have a detrimental effect on the WLB of spouses and cohabiting partners, especially for women whose level of WLB seems also more sensitive to fluctuations of the macro-economic climate of the country they live in. However, there is an indication that when an economy goes into recession, higher education has a cushioning effect on female’s WLB compared to relatively better economic times.

Division of Labour, Work–Life Conflict and Family Policy: Conclusions and Reflections

“…While the individual level and the country level are well-researched (however, not always with consistent results; see Masuda, Sortheix, Beham, & Naidoo, 2019;Ruppanner, 2011), the meso-level, i.e., the situation at the workplace and labour market, is less researched (with the exception of working conditions, e.g., Gallie & Russell, 2009). Kromydas (2020) shows that education, in its mediating role between the individual and the meso level, plays a complex role regarding the relationship between division of labour and work-life conflict. Higher education can lead to higher work-life conflict for women, probably because they do double-shifts taking the same household duties but having more de-manding jobs.…”

“…Vulnerability is not only linked to a few conditions such as unemployment or single parenting, but many situations can lead to issues of work-life conflict and thus family problems, such as having multiple jobs, both parents working at unsocial times, trying to live gender equality in a traditional setting or vice versa etc. (Bornatici & Heers, 2020;Kromydas, 2020;Ochsner & Szalma, 2017;Ukhova, 2020;Zimmermann & LeGoff, 2020). Attitudes towards family arrangements do not only vary between countries, but also between regions and social classes (Ukhova, 2020;Zimmermann & LeGoff, 2020).…”

Stress in Balancing Work and Family among Working Parents in Hong Kong

“…We referred to some of the theoretical definitions [11,12] as the framework and measured individuals' subjective satisfaction and stress of balance, objective measures of time spent in each domain, and the perception on the time distribution on work and life. Work-life balance is defined here as the struggle to meet role demands, which is often determined by factors related to employment duties and family responsibilities [12]. Conservation of Resources (COR) theory [13] emphasizes an individual's drive to protect their resources.…”

“…COR theory also suggests that individuals are motivated to expend resources they prefer and minimize that on the required activities that are required [14]. For example, educational attainment is positively related to employment and wages, which leads to an indication of a gender convergence in many developed countries [12]. The assimilation of women in the workforce can increase family income and the independence of women [23].…”

Perceptions of Barriers to Motherhood: Female STEM PhD Students’ Changing Family Plans

“…Many studies have been published about how to juggle working life and motherhood, the cultural contradictions involved in mothering and employment, and being a woman and the meanings ascribed to the con-cept by society (Hays, 1996;Kromydas, 2020). There has also been considerable discussion about the social expectations and norms associated with becoming a mother or staying childless.…”