Effect of smoking on cyanide, IL-2 and IFN-γ levels in saliva of smokers and nonsmokers

Abstract

I n t r o d u c t i o n : Tobacco use is widely spread throughout the world. Smoking has several adverse effects on human health ranging from minor health conditions to death. A i m : This study aimed to investigate effect of smoking on level of saliva cyanide, interleukin-2 (IL-2) and interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) among smokers compared to nonsmokers in the city of Ilam, Iran. M a t e r i a l a n d m e t h o d s : This study was carried out among two equal groups of smokers as cases and nonsmokers as controls (N = 76) which were matched in terms of their age range. Dental roll and direct saliva method were used to collect samples. The saliva sample was stored at-18°C. The level of salivary cyanide was measured using the spectrophotometric method. IL-2 and IFN-γ were measured by ELISA. R e s u l t s a n d d i s c u s s i o n : We found level of cyanide in the saliva of smokers was higher than that in nonsmokers. In addition, level of cyanide in the smokers' saliva increased (164.21 ± 18.54 µg/mL) significantly compared to nonsmokers (42.63 ± 24.01 µg/mL). A significant increase was found in the level of IFN-γ and IL-2 among smokers compared to nonsmokers. However, there was a significant decrease in the level of IFN-γ and IL-2 with increased intensity of smoking. C o n c l u s i o n s : Heavy smoking was associated with an increased level of salivary cyanide and a decreased level of sera IFN-γ. Recognizing immunosuppression mechanisms produced by cigarette-smoking is a platform for identifying the best therapeutic and management approaches in smoke-induced diseases.

Systemic biomarkers in electronic cigarette users: implications for noninvasive assessment of vaping-associated pulmonary injuries

“…Another study reported similar findings of increased levels of salivary IL-1β in e-cig users [42]. The inflammatory mediator IFN-γ was increased in urine samples of e-cig users compared with nonusers, which was also seen in tobacco smokers [43]. Supporting the observations in our study, pro-inflammatory effects of e-cig condensate on human alveolar macrophages in vitro have been reported in another study [44].…”

Comparison of smoking traditional, heat not burn and electronic cigarettes on salivary cytokine, chemokine and growth factor profile in healthy young adults–pilot study

“…Cigarette smoke from traditional cigarettes induces an inflammatory response in a short period of addiction, which was manifested in our experiment by elevated concentration of INF-γ observed in traditional smokers. As indicated by the study of Rahimi et al (2018) , prolonging the time of exposure to tobacco smoke intensifies the immune system response, which indicates an increase in the concentration of subsequent proinflammatory cytokines (IL-2). This theory is confirmed by the positive correlation between the duration of smoking and the content of INF-γ in the unstimulated saliva of subjects ( Rahimi et al, 2018 ).…”

“…As indicated by the study of Rahimi et al (2018) , prolonging the time of exposure to tobacco smoke intensifies the immune system response, which indicates an increase in the concentration of subsequent proinflammatory cytokines (IL-2). This theory is confirmed by the positive correlation between the duration of smoking and the content of INF-γ in the unstimulated saliva of subjects ( Rahimi et al, 2018 ). In light of the evidence it appears that the boost of the immune system reaction is caused by components of cigarette smoke other than nicotine.…”

Can smoking alter salivary homeostasis? A systematic review on the effects of traditional and electronic cigarettes on qualitative and quantitative saliva parameters

“…Importantly, the concentrations of these cytokines increased with smoking duration. 144 Mokeem et al demonstrated significantly higher levels of pro-inflammatory IL-1β and IL-6 in the saliva of cigarette smokers. 145 It is worth mentioning that IL-1β in saliva is associated with active smoking, regardless of the number of cigarettes smoked, in contrast to the level of TNF-α, the concentration of which positively correlates with the number of cigarettes smoked daily.…”

“…Rahimi et al found a significant increase in the levels of interferon gamma (IFN-γ) and IL-2 in the saliva of smokers as compared to non-smokers. 144 Thus, CS mainly affects the balance of cytokines produced by Th cells. Importantly, the concentrations of these cytokines increased with smoking duration.…”