Effectiveness of in-line chlorination in a developing world gravity-flow water supply

Orner, Kevin D.; Calvo, Arlene; Zhang, Jie; Mihelcic, James R.

doi:10.3362/1756-3488.16-00016

Cited by 13 publications

(23 citation statements)

References 14 publications

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“…In our assessment, the T-chlorinator achieved the best dosing consistency of all devices (x = 2.0 mg/ L, SD = 0.3 m g/ L, m in = 1.1 mg/ L, max = 3.0 mg/ L, CD = 90 per cent, n = 64, flow rate = 3-8 L/min). No significant correlation between the flow rate and PRC concentration was found (R = -0.23, p = 0.070), which is consistent with Orner et al (2017). The device is userfriendly and robust.…”

Section: T-ch/o Rinatorsupporting

confidence: 81%

Assessment of low-cost, non-electrically powered chlorination devices for gravity-driven membrane water kiosks in eastern Uganda

Dössegger¹,

Tournefier²,

Germann³

et al. 2021

Waterlines

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Recontamination during transport and storage is a common challenge of water supply in low-income settings, especially if water is collected manually. Chlorination is a strategy to reduce recontamination. We assessed seven low-cost, non-electrically powered chlorination devices in gravity-driven membrane filtration (GDM) kiosks in eastern Uganda: one floater, two in-line dosers, three end-line dosers (tap-attached), and one manual dispenser. The evaluation criteria were dosing consistency, user-friendliness, ease of maintenance, local supply chain, and cost. Achieving an adequate chlorine dosage (∼2 mg/L at the tap and ≥ 0.2 mg/L after 24 h of storage in a container) was challenging. The T-chlorinator was the most promising option for GDM kiosks: it achieved correct dosage (CD, 1.5–2.5 mg/L) with a probability of 90 per cent, was easy to use and maintain, economical, and can be made from locally available materials. The other in-line option, the chlorine-dosing bucket (40 per cent CD) still needs design improvements. The end-line options AkvoTur (67 per cent CD) and AquatabsFlo® (57 per cent CD) are easy to install and operate at the tap, but can be easily damaged in the GDM set-up. The Venturi doser (52 per cent CD) did not perform satisfactorily with flow rates > 6 L/min. The chlorine dispenser (52 per cent CD) was robust and user-friendly, but can only be recommended if users comply with chlorinating the water themselves. Establishing a sustainable supply chain for chlorine products was challenging. Where solid chlorine tablets were locally rarely available, the costs of liquid chlorine options were high (27–162 per cent of the water price).

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Section: T-ch/o Rinatorsupporting

confidence: 81%

Assessment of low-cost, non-electrically powered chlorination devices for gravity-driven membrane water kiosks in eastern Uganda

Dössegger¹,

Tournefier²,

Germann³

et al. 2021

Waterlines

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“…No prior published evaluations of this technology were identified, but it is a similar design to T-shaped erosion chlorinators evaluated elsewhere. 12 − 14 …”

Section: Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Evaluation of System-Level, Passive Chlorination in Gravity-Fed Piped Water Systems in Rural Nepal

Crider

Sainju

Shrestha

et al. 2022

Environ. Sci. Technol.

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Over 2 billion people globally lack access to safely managed drinking water. In contrast to the household-level, manually implemented treatment products that have been the dominant strategy for gaining low-cost access to safe drinking water, passive chlorination technologies have the potential to treat water and reduce reliance on individual behavior change. However, few studies exist that evaluate the performance and costs of these technologies over time, especially in small, rural systems. We conducted a nonrandomized evaluation of two passive chlorination technologies for system-level water treatment in six gravity-fed, piped water systems in small communities in the hilly region of western Nepal. We monitored water quality indicators upstream of the treatment, at shared taps, and at households, as well as user acceptability and maintenance costs, over 1 year. At baseline, over 80% of tap samples were contaminated with Escherichia coli . After 1 year of system-level chlorination, only 7% of those same taps had E. coli . However, 29% of household stored water was positive for E. coli . Per cubic meter of treated water, the cost of chlorine was 0.06–0.09 USD, similar to the cost of monitoring technology installations. Safe storage, service delivery models, and reliable supply chains are required, but passive chlorination technologies have the potential to radically improve how rural households gain access to safely managed water.

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“…Real-time monitoring and early detection of system failures could increase the consistency of adequate FCR dosing, which currently depends on community members and technicians. In the case of most tablet chlorinators 28 and liquid dosers, the device operator would also be responsible for adjusting dosing configurations. Additionally, testing for FCR or the presence of E. coli requires additional expertise and materials, which can further burden users and increase cost.…”

Section: Limitations and Priority Areas For Future Researchmentioning

confidence: 99%

Passive In-Line Chlorination for Drinking Water Disinfection: A Critical Review

Lindmark

Cherukumilli

Crider

et al. 2022

Environ. Sci. Technol.

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The world is not on track to meet Sustainable Development Goal 6.1 to provide universal access to safely managed drinking water by 2030. Removal of priority microbial contaminants by disinfection is one aspect of ensuring water is safely managed. Passive chlorination (also called in-line chlorination) represents one approach to disinfecting drinking water before or at the point of collection (POC), without requiring daily user input or electricity. In contrast to manual household chlorination methods typically implemented at the point of use (POU), passive chlorinators can reduce the user burden for chlorine dosing and enable treatment at scales ranging from communities to small municipalities. In this review, we synthesized evidence from 27 evaluations of passive chlorinators (in 19 articles, 3 NGO reports, and 5 theses) conducted across 16 countries in communities, schools, health care facilities, and refugee camps. Of the 27 passive chlorinators we identified, the majority (22/27) were solid tablet or granular chlorine dosers, and the remaining devices were liquid chlorine dosers. We identified the following research priorities to address existing barriers to scaled deployment of passive chlorinators: (i) strengthening local chlorine supply chains through decentralized liquid chlorine production, (ii) validating context-specific business models and financial sustainability, (iii) leveraging remote monitoring and sensing tools to monitor real-time chlorine levels and potential system failures, and (iv) designing handpump-compatible passive chlorinators to serve the many communities reliant on handpumps as a primary drinking water source. We also propose a set of reporting indicators for future studies to facilitate standardized evaluations of the technical performance and financial sustainability of passive chlorinators. In addition, we discuss the limitations of chlorine-based disinfection and recognize the importance of addressing chemical contamination in drinking water supplies. Passive chlorinators deployed and managed at-scale have the potential to elevate the quality of existing accessible and available water services to meet “safely managed” requirements.

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Effectiveness of in-line chlorination in a developing world gravity-flow water supply

Cited by 13 publications

References 14 publications

Assessment of low-cost, non-electrically powered chlorination devices for gravity-driven membrane water kiosks in eastern Uganda

Assessment of low-cost, non-electrically powered chlorination devices for gravity-driven membrane water kiosks in eastern Uganda

Evaluation of System-Level, Passive Chlorination in Gravity-Fed Piped Water Systems in Rural Nepal

Passive In-Line Chlorination for Drinking Water Disinfection: A Critical Review

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