Effects of Calcium Present in Fabric and in Washing Liquor on Detergency.

Goto-Doshida, Sumiko; Saitō, Masako; Nagayama, Masuzō

doi:10.5650/jos.52.73

Cited by 7 publications

(5 citation statements)

References 12 publications

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“…The resulting high-pH and -alkalinity conditions require acidification prior to discharge, resulting in even greater TDS. Meanwhile, Ca 2þ and Mg 2þ (primary hardness components) can have adverse effects during textile production, such as scaling and chemical interference, and are usually removed from process waters prior to use [15,16]. In addition, lowhardness effluents are typical of regions such as the southeastern United States, where many ground waters and surface waters are naturally low in Ca 2þ and Mg 2þ [11,17].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Observed and predicted reproduction of Ceriodaphnia dubia exposed to chloride, sulfate, and bicarbonate

Lasier

Hardin

2009

Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry

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Chronic toxicities of Cl(-), SO(4) (2-), and HCO(3) (-) to Ceriodaphnia dubia were evaluated in low- and moderate-hardness waters using a three-brood reproduction test method. Toxicity tests of anion mixtures were used to determine interaction effects and to produce models predicting C. dubia reproduction. Effluents diluted with low- and moderate-hardness waters were tested with animals acclimated to low- and moderate-hardness conditions to evaluate the models and to assess the effects of hardness and acclimation. Sulfate was significantly less toxic than Cl(-) and HCO(3) (-) in both types of water. Chloride and HCO(3) (-) toxicities were similar in low-hardness water, but HCO(3) (-) was the most toxic in moderate-hardness water. Low acute-to-chronic ratios indicate that toxicities of these anions will decrease quickly with dilution. Hardness significantly reduced Cl(-) and SO(4) (2-) toxicity but had little effect on HCO(3) (-). Chloride toxicity decreased with an increase in Na(+) concentration, and HCO(3) (-) toxicity may have been reduced by the dissolved organic carbon in effluent. Multivariate models using measured anion concentrations in effluents with low to moderate hardness levels provided fairly accurate predictions of reproduction. Determinations of toxicity for several effluents differed significantly depending on the hardness of the dilution water and the hardness of the water used to culture test animals. These results can be used to predict the contribution of elevated anion concentrations to the chronic toxicity of effluents; to identify effluents that are toxic due to contaminants other than Cl(-), SO(4) (2-), and HCO(3) (-); and to provide a basis for chemical substitutions in manufacturing processes.

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Observed and predicted reproduction of Ceriodaphnia dubia exposed to chloride, sulfate, and bicarbonate

Lasier

Hardin

2009

Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry

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“…A small peak of Ca 2p was observed even after washing in the absence of hardness salts. This calcium content may originate from the original cotton fabric 11,12 . However, no peak of Ca 2p was observed in the XPS spectra for used cotton fabrics, which had been cleaned in boiling water twice.…”

Section: Residue On Cotton Ber Surface After Washingmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…They also reported that detergency performance in the presence of magnesium is significantly higher than with calcium 10 . Goto-Doshida et al studied the relation between detergency and calcium on the cotton fabric, or in the wash bath, in the presence of anionic surfactants, nonionic surfactants, and builders 11,12 . They found that the calcium content in cotton fabrics had no influence on detergency at high water hardness, and a negative influence at lower water hardness.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Effects of Water Hardness on Textile Detergency Performance in Aqueous Cleaning Systems

2016

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“…Detergency effectiveness is dependent on many factors, such as the physical properties of the soil, the washing solution and fabrics (substrates), the washing time, temperature, and electrolyte level [1][2][3]. Water hardness, which results from the presence of the divalent cations calcium and magnesium, is considered to be an important factor affecting detergency performance [4][5][6][7][8]. Water hardness is measured in grains per gallon (gpg) or parts per million (ppm).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In addition, washing with hard water can damage the fabric, shortening its life span. It has been found that calcium is retained in the fabric matrix when hard water is used in laundering [4]. Moreover, the residual calcium in the fabric results in making the fabric harsher, stiffer, and more brittle, leading to increased friction and wear as the fabric flexes.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Microemulsion Formation and Detergency with Oily Soil: V. Effects of Water Hardness and Builder

Tanthakit

Nakrachata-Amorn

Sabatini

et al. 2009

J Surfact & Detergents

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In this study, the impact of water hardness and builder on the phase diagrams of motor oil microemulsions and the detergency of oil removal from a polyester/cotton blend was investigated. Water hardness and builder were found to have insignificant effects on the microemulsion phase diagram with motor oil. A mixed surfactant system of two parts C 14-15 (PO) 3 SO 4 Na, and 98 parts C 12-14 H 25-29 O(EO) 5 H of the total actives at 4% salinity was used to study the effect of water hardness and builders sodium tripolyphosphate (STPP) or ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) on detergency at 30°C at a total active concentration of 0.3%. This formulation is in the Winsor Type III microemulsion regime. The microemulsion-based formulation resulted in better detergency than a leading commercial liquid laundry detergent at all concentrations up to 0.5% actives. The microemulsion-based formulation showed a plateau in detergency at[80% oil removal above 0.1% actives. The total oil removal decreased with increasing water hardness while the interfacial tension increased. When hard water was used in laundering, the total oil removal improved with increasing concentrations of STPP or EDTA up to stoichiometric levels, with STPP being slightly more effective than EDTA on a molar basis. Even high builder concentration could not improve hard water detergency to that of soft water. A significant fraction of oil removal occurred in the rinse steps vs. the wash step. Increasing water hardness reduced this fractional oil removal in the rinse steps, but it was still over half of total oil removal at 1,000 ppm water hardness.

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Effects of Calcium Present in Fabric and in Washing Liquor on Detergency.

Cited by 7 publications

References 12 publications

Observed and predicted reproduction of Ceriodaphnia dubia exposed to chloride, sulfate, and bicarbonate

Observed and predicted reproduction of Ceriodaphnia dubia exposed to chloride, sulfate, and bicarbonate

Effects of Water Hardness on Textile Detergency Performance in Aqueous Cleaning Systems

Microemulsion Formation and Detergency with Oily Soil: V. Effects of Water Hardness and Builder

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