Effects of Carbohydrate and Glutamine Supplementation on Oral Mucosa Immunity after Strenuous Exercise at High Altitude: A Double-Blind Randomized Trial

Abstract

This study analyzed the effects of carbohydrate and glutamine supplementation on salivary immunity after exercise at a simulated altitude of 4500 m. Fifteen volunteers performed exercise of 70% of VO2peak until exhaustion and were divided into three groups: hypoxia placebo, hypoxia 8% maltodextrin (200 mL/20 min), and hypoxia after six days glutamine (20 g/day) and 8% maltodextrin (200 mL/20 min). All procedures were randomized and double-blind. Saliva was collected at rest (basal), before exercise (pre-exercise), immediately after exercise (post-exercise), and two hours after exercise. Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) for repeated measures and Tukey post hoc test were performed. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05. SaO2% reduced when comparing baseline vs. pre-exercise, post-exercise, and after recovery for all three groups. There was also a reduction of SaO2% in pre-exercise vs. post-exercise for the hypoxia group and an increase was observed in pre-exercise vs. recovery for both supplementation groups, and between post-exercise and for the three groups studied. There was an increase of salivary flow in post-exercise vs. recovery in Hypoxia + Carbohydrate group. Immunoglobulin A (IgA) decreased from baseline vs. post-exercise for Hypoxia + Glutamine group. Interleukin 10 (IL-10) increased from post-exercise vs. after recovery in Hypoxia + Carbohydrate group. Reduction of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) was observed from baseline vs. post-exercise and after recovery for the Hypoxia + Carbohydrate group; a lower concentration was observed in pre-exercise vs. post-exercise and recovery. TNF-α had a reduction from baseline vs. post-exercise for both supplementation groups, and a lower secretion between baseline vs. recovery, and pre-exercise vs. post-exercise for Hypoxia + Carbohydrate group. Five hours of hypoxia and exercise did not change IgA. Carbohydrates, with greater efficiency than glutamine, induced anti-inflammatory responses.

Screening of differentially methylated genes in breast cancer and risk model construction based on TCGA database

“…In the PATHWAY analysis, the most closely related to the differentially methylated genes in breast cancer tissues was the ‘D-Glutamine and D-glutamate metabolism’. Glutamine is an important fuel for the immune system and has important immunomodulatory effects ( 25 ), which can promote the division and differentiation of lymphocytes and macrophages. Exogenous glutamine can significantly increase the number of lymphocytes, T lymphocytes and CD4/CD8 ratio in critically ill patients and enhance the body immunity ( 26 ).…”

The Possible Importance of Glutamine Supplementation to Mood and Cognition in Hypoxia from High Altitude

“…Several animal and human studies have demonstrated glutamine ability to attenuate inflammatory mediators released in injury and stress conditions. Few studies have evaluated the effects of glutamine supplementation on hypoxia, mood and cognition [8,9,[76][77][78][79]. Therefore, we intend to demonstrate the influence of glutamine supplementation on inflammation and subsequently concerning these two psychobiological factors.…”

“…Glutamine is a crucial energy fuel for rapidly growing cells (mostly immune and enterocytes cells), the precursor of glucose, proteins and nucleic acids, having diverse roles in the organism, being key to the synthesis of cytokines, hormones, acid-base balance, transport of ammonia and cell proliferation [5]. Glutamine supplementation has been studied to reduce the risk of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) after long-term exercise (i.e., marathon), thus improving immunocompetence in normoxia [6] and hypoxia [7][8][9]. The high blood glutamine availability can interfere with central glutamate synthesis, an excitatory neurotransmitter that stimulates ventilation, increasing O 2 saturation (SaO 2 %) [10].…”

The Crucial Role of Oxygen for Health

“…The study authors suggested this was the result of an inflammation response in the lungs or vascular dysfunction due to exposure to airborne particles. 12 Cigarette smoke and secondhand smoke, 13 weight gain, 14,15 drinking alcohol, 16,17 living at high altitude, or too much or too little exercise 18,19 are other factors that deprive the body of optimal oxygen levels.…”

“…Oxygen serves as a fuel for cytochrome oxidase, the final enzyme in the electron transport chain that generates ATP. 18 Because diffusion would be an inefficient means of supplying cells with oxygen, hemoglobin and myoglobin act as oxygen-carrying molecules to perfuse the tissues. 20 As blood circulates through capillaries, oxygen bound to hemoglobin diffuses via a steep pressure gradient into tissues and subsequently into the mitochondria.…”