Effects of energy and essential fatty acids content in breast milk on infant's head dimensions

Abstract

Objectives: Essential fatty acids (EFA), including linoleic acid (LA) and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), are indispensable for proper brain growth especially in the first months after birth when it develops most rapidly. Since fats, especially EFA, in breast milk are highly variable between mothers, we indirectly examined whether milk energy, LA and ALA content in breast milk affect volume and shape of the infant's head. Methods: The study encompassed 60 mothers and their healthy term-born infants between the third and sixth month of lactation. The percentage of macronutrients and dry matter in human milk samples was assessed using Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and LA and ALA concentrations in breast milk were determined using gas chromatography (GC). Infant head measurements were taken using standard anthropometric equipment and methods. Results: LA content in breast milk was found to be positively associated with head volume in boys. Furthermore, ALA content was positively associated with the head height-to-length ratio thus with more arched head in infants irrespective of sex. No relationship was found between milk energy content in mothers' milk and infant head dimensions. Conclusions: This is the first study to demonstrate a relationship between EFA concentration in human milk and infant head dimensions. Given that LA and ALA in human milk are variable in women and due to the extremely rapid growth of nerve tissue in the first months of life, adequate supply of EFA in breast milk should attract the attention of public health sciences.

Human Milk Macronutrients and Child Growth and Body Composition in the First Two Years: A Systematic Review

“…Docosahexanoic acid (DHA), LA, and EPA were examined by 11 studies [ 17 , 38 , 67 , 75 , [78] , [79] , [80] , [99] , [100] , [101] ], 10 studies [ 17 , 38 , 67 , 74 , [77] , [78] , [79] , 80 , 82 , 83 ] and 9 studies [ 17 , 38 , 67 , 75 , [77] , [78] , [79] , 83 , 101 ] respectively. Inverse associations were observed between DHA and infant weight at 1 and 3 mo [ 17 , 38 ], length at 3 mo and 1 y [ 17 , 75 ] and BMI Z-Score [ 78 ].…”

“…(2019) [ 78 ], who did not find any associations between DHA and BMI at 6 or 18 mo. Positive associations were observed between LA and many infant growth outcomes in infants up to 6 mo of age [ 67 , 78 , 82 ], whereas inverse associations were observed for Δ BMI (BMI gain), Δ weight (weight gain) over the first y of life [ 79 ] and percent fat mass at 6 mo of age [ 38 ]. Eicosatetraenoic acid demonstrated mixed associations with infant growth across 6 studies, where researchers observed positive associations at 6 mo [ 74 ] and negative associations at 3–4 mo of age [ 17 , 75 ] with infant weight and length.…”

“…Inclusion criteria were studies reporting on healthy, term, breastfed infants (aged 0 to 24 mo). Whereas breastfeeding exclusivity was not an inclusion criterion, it was recorded when reported by authors ( Table 1 ) [ [33] , [34] , [35] , [36] , [37] , [38] , [39] , [40] , [41] , [42] , [43] , [44] , [45] , [46] , [47] , [48] , [49] , [50] , [51] , [52] , [53] , [54] , [55] , [56] , [57] , [58] , [59] , [60] , [61] , [62] , [63] , [64] , [65] , [66] , [67] , [68] , [69] , [70] , [71] , [72] , [73] , [74] , [75] , [76] , [77] , [78] , [79] , [80] , [81] , [82] , [83] , [84] , [85] , [86] , [87] , [88] , [89] ] and considered in the quality assessment (described below). Healthy was defined as term birth (37 wk, 0 d of gestation or later) with no congenital or other morbidities and no admission in the neonatal intensive care unit.…”

“…Egypt, 2020 (LMIC) [ 51 ] Cross-sectional 100 infants 6–4 mo fat, protein, lactose (concentrations) Exclusive BF only 6–14 mo weight, length, BMI (-) Association for HM Fat and BMI (No) Association for HM fat and length or weight (No) Association for HM protein and length, weight or BMI (No) Association for HM lactose and length, weight or BMI exclusive BF Aksit et al. Turkey, 2002 (LMIC) [ 65 ] Cross-sectional 80 infants 2 mo fat - via creamatocrit: % cream (concentrations) Exclusive BF only 2 mo high or low weight gain Difference from birth to 2 mo (-) Association for fat and weight gain exclusive BF Babiszewska et al.Poland, 2020(HIC) [ 82 ] Cross-sectional 60 infants 3–6 mo fatty acids: linoleic acid, alpha-linolenic acid (concentrations) Exclusive BF only 3–6 mo HC, head volume cranial indices (breadth/length, height/breadth, height/length) (+) Association for linoleic acid and head volume (+) Association for alpha-linolenic acid and cranial height/length ratio exclusive BF, infant sex, age; maternal socioeconomic status, cranial indices Baldeón et al. Ecuador, 2019 (LMIC) [ 58 ] Longitudinal 65 infants enrolled 61 analyzed at 1 wk 47 analyzed at 2 wk 38 analyzed at 2 mo 37 analyzed at 4 mo 1 wk, 2 wk, 2 mo, 4 mo amino acids (concentrations) Exclusive BF only 1 wk, 2 wk, 2 mo, 4 mo weight gain tertiles, HC gain tertiles Difference from 1 wk and 4 mo (+) Association for glutamic acid and weight gain (+) Association for alanine and weight gain exclusive BF, infant sex Brown et al.Bangladesh, 1986(LMIC) [ 62 ] Longitudinal 60 infants enrolled 58 analyzed Monthly between birth, 9 mo (starting at different times depending on infant age at recruitment) protein: total nitrogen (measured daily intake) monthly between birth, 9 mo (starting at different times depending on infant age at recruitment) WAZ, WLZ, LAZ (NCHS standards) Under 3 m...…”

Volatile metabolite profiling of linolenic acid oxidation in the heating process

“…Therefore, exploring the composition and content of volatiles produced from fatty acids is important to investigate the mechanisms of flavor production during heating. Linolenic acid is an ω-3 fatty acid with three double bonds, and is one of the important fatty acids that constitute fats and oils in the form of glycerides (Babiszewska, 2020;Almas et al, 2022). At the same time, linolenic acid as essential fatty acids, is only through food intake for the normal growth and development of the human body (Rincón-Cervera et al, 2016).…”