Electrochemical Analysis of Opiates—An Overview

Abstract

The analysis of opiates is of vital interest in drug abuse monitoring and research. This review presents a general overview of the electrochemical methods used for detection and quantification of opiates in a variety of matrices. Emphasis has been placed on the voltammetric methods used for study and determination of morphine, codeine, and heroin. Specific issues that need to be solved and better explained as well as future trends in the use of electrochemical methods in the examination of opiates are also discussed.

Extraction and determination of opium alkaloids in urine samples using dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction followed by high-performance liquid chromatography

“…Most of these use gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) [4][5][6][7], highperformance liquid chromatography (HPLC) [8][9][10], capillary electrophoresis (CE) [11][12][13][14] and electrochemical [15,16] analysis. GC-MS is often used because of its sensitivity, but the necessity of sample derivatization and the cost of the technique itself are restricting its applicability.…”

Bioelectroanalysis of pharmaceutical compounds

“…The oxidation mechanisms of drugs of abuse have also been studied using glassy carbon electrodes [132][133][134][135]. The importance of antioxidants to human health, namely from the polyphenol family of phytochemical antioxidants, to protect from the damage caused by oxidative stress, is documented in several studies undertaken on the electrochemical mechanisms of antioxidants [136][137][138][139][140][141].…”

Evaluation of the lipophilic properties of opioids, amphetamine-like drugs, and metabolites through electrochemical studies at the interface between two immiscible solutions

“…The increase of chemical and biological studies on this type of drugs has been motivated by its toxicological public health significance in the hope for a better understanding of its biological behavior at the molecular level. The importance of the partition coefficient evaluation of this type of drugs and metabolites is evident in previously published works [16][17][18][19][20][21], and undoubtedly it could be related to the toxicity profile before or after biotransformation of the drugs and/or their metabolites and their capacity to cross membrane barriers.…”