Electrodeposition of copper: the nucleation mechanisms

Grujicic, Darko; Pešić, Batrić

doi:10.1016/s0013-4686(02)00161-5

Cited by 608 publications

(506 citation statements)

References 10 publications

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“…40,41 This value corresponds to the V 2 O 5 subsequently nucleated and grown on the already formed V 2 O 5 from the initial polarization and electrodeposition on to the available substrate surface. To account for cracks, domain boundary defects, and some (100) packing in opal ordering (thus increasing accessible volume in some cases), this value is taken as a lower bound value.…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

3D Vanadium Oxide Inverse Opal Growth by Electrodeposition

Armstrong

O’Sullivan

O’Connell

et al. 2015

J. Electrochem. Soc.

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Three-dimensional vanadium pentoxide (V 2 O 5 ) material architectures in the form of inverse opals (IOs) were fabricated using a simple electrodeposition process into artificial opal templates on stainless steel foil using an aqueous solution of VOSO 4 .χH 2 O with added ethanol. The direct deposition of V 2 O 5 IOs was compared with V 2 O 5 planar electrodeposition and confirms a similar progressive nucleation and growth mechanism. An in-depth examination of the chemical and morphological nature of the IO material was performed using X-ray crystallography, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, Raman scattering and scanning/transmission electron microscopy. Electrodeposition is demonstrated to be a function of the interstitial void fraction of the artificial opal and ionic diffusivity that leads to high quality, phase pure V 2 O 5 inverse opals is not adversely affected by diffusion pathway tortuosity. Methods to alleviate electrodeposited overlayer formation on the artificial opal templates for the fabrication of the porous 3D structures are also demonstrated. Such a 3D material is ideally suited as a cathode for lithium ion batteries, electrochromic devices, sensors and for applications requiring high surface area electrochemically active metal oxides. The growth in portable electronics and the need for cleaner energy solutions has led to the rising interest in materials research and energy storage material architectures that may help drive advancement in energy storage technologies to mitigate current issues in some energy storage materials and batteries such as capacity fading and lower life times, for example. [1][2][3][4] In recent years, three-dimensional (3D) material architectures 5 have become a particularly attractive approach to achieving significant improvements in charge rate performance, maintenance of specific capacity and opportunities for higher power density supercapacitors. [6][7][8][9] For this reason, the development of synthesis routes for the fabrication of three-dimensional nanostructured active materials onto metallic current collector substrates is important. [10][11][12][13] Electrodeposition is a particularly facile route for the formation of metal and metal oxide films on a variety of conductive substrates and has recently gained a lot of attention for synthesising three-dimensional materials when combined with templates and sacrificial architecture-directing structures. [14][15][16][17] Vanadium pentoxide is a particularly attractive replacement cathode material with its mixed valence, V 4+ and V 5+ , making it an ideal candidate for a large number of redox-dependent applications. 23-26 While the lattice structure is theoretically maintained upon mild intercalation, phase changes are known to occur and the interlayer van der Waals spacing characteristic of its layered orthorhombic crystal structure can become deformed at lower voltages (higher Li mole fraction). 27,28 Large particle sizes can also limit the solid state diffusional rate of cation insertion. The growth of a porous, thre...

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Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

3D Vanadium Oxide Inverse Opal Growth by Electrodeposition

Armstrong

O’Sullivan

O’Connell

et al. 2015

J. Electrochem. Soc.

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“…During CA experiments, current-time transients are recorded as the potential is stepped from the opencircuit potential (OCP) to the potential at which the electrodeposition of metals or alloys occurred. 22,23 The Scharifker-Hills model shows two limiting nucleus growth mechanisms, one instantaneous nucleus growth mechanism and one progressive nucleus growth mechanism. 24 The theoretical transients of the instantaneous and the progressive nucleus growth, with three dimensions (3D) under diffusion control, are given by: where I and t are the current density and time, respectively, and I m and t m are the current density and time coordinate values for the current-time transient curve peak, respectively.…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Study on Co-Electrodeposition Mechanism of Au-30at.%Sn Eutectic in Non-Cyanide Bath by Electrochemical Methods

Huang

2017

J. Electrochem. Soc.

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The co-deposition of Au-30at.%Sn alloy in a non-cyanide alkaline Au + -Sn 2+ bath was successfully achieved with sodium sulfite (Na 2 SO 3 ) and potassium pyrophosphate (K 4 P 2 O 7 ) as green complexing agents, ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA) as bath stabilizer and catechol as additive. The Au(I) is mainly complexed with sulfite in the form of [Au(SO 3 ) 2 ] 3− , while the Sn(II) is mainly complexed in the form of [Sn(P 2 O 7 ) 2 ] 6− . The reduction potentials of both Sn(II) and Au(I) shift to a negative value (more negative than −0.70 V vs. SCE) in the presence of sulfite and pyrophosphate complexing agents, resulting in the onset reduction potential gap between Au(I) and Sn(II) decreased from 1.828 V (for standard deposition potential) to 100 mV, and consequently the co-deposition of Au and Sn is realized. The cyclic voltammetry and chronoamperometry characterizations revealed that the co-deposition of Au-Sn alloy is an irreversible and diffusion-controlled process and the nucleation mechanism is represented by the progressive model. The addition of catechol, which can be adsorbed on the cathode surface, increased the co-deposition overpotential, inhibited the co-deposition process and refined the grain size of the electrodeposits. Au-30at.%Sn eutectic solder has been extensively used in microelectronic and optoelectronic packaging, due to the superior mechanical and thermal conductive properties as well as the high long-term reliability. [1][2][3][4] As one of the hard solders, the relatively lower melting temperature (278 • C) of Au-Sn eutectic solder compared with those of Au-Ge (356 • C) and Au-Si (363 • C) eutectic solders, makes it ideally suitable for packaging of bonding devices those are sensitive to high processing temperatures, such as GaAs or large Si dies on alumina. Moreover, the high thermal conductivity of Au-Sn makes it suitable for bonding high-powered devices, such as high-powered LED and laser diode packaging with the demand of good heat dissipation. 5 Conventionally, Au-Sn eutectic solder is prepared by solder preform, 6 evaporation 7 and sputtering. 8 However, the Au-30at.%Sn solder fabricated using these techniques cannot meet the demand for microscale solder preparation due to the limitations of precise pattern formation and deposits thickness. As an alternative method, electrodeposition technique 9 can overcome such limitations and would be an attractive way in Au-Sn solder manufacturing.In the past decades, due to the high stability of cyanide with metallic ions, cyanide containing baths were primarily used to prepare Au-Sn alloy deposits. 10,11 However, cyanide is one of the most toxic chemicals, which is extremely harmful to human health and the environment. Furthermore, cyanide also destroys the photoresist in the process of flip chip bump preparation. To solve this problem, a number of attempts have been made to develop non-cyanide Au-Sn electroplating baths. [12][13][14] Up to now, the electrodeposition technology of Au-Sn alloys has not yet fully developed due to the l...

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“…Chronoamperometry (CP) was used as an electrochemical technique suitable for electrochemical nucleation mechanisms studies [44]. There are several published methods that utilize the coordinates of chronoamperometric peaks to determine nucleation mechanisms and parameters related to nucleation [45], am ong which the model developed by Scharifker and Hills [46] is the most widely used.…”

Section: Chronoamperometric Measurementsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Further reaction is strictly controlled by the rate of mass transfer through the control area of the diffusion zone. Within the diffusion zone, growth of alreadyestablished metal nuclei can continue, or additional nucleation can be initiated on various sites, both governed by the steady state conditions [44].…”

Section: ------------------------------------------------------------mentioning

confidence: 99%

Preparation and Characterization of Electrodeposited Cadmium and Lead thin Films from a Diluted Chloride Solution

Sulaymon

Mohammed

Abbar

2014

Journal of Electrochemical Science and Technology

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Cd-Pb thin films were electrodeposited from a diluted chloride solution using stainless steel rotating disc electrode. The linear sweep voltammograms of the single metallic ions show that electrodeposition of these ions was mass transfer control due to the plateau observed for different rotations at concentration (50 and 200 ppm). The voltammograms of binary system elucidate that electrodeposition process always start at cathodic potential located between the potential of individual metals. Currents transients measurements, anodic linear sweep voltammetry (ALSV) and atomic force microscopy (AFM) were used to characterize the electrocryatalization process and morphology of thin films. ALSV profiles show a differentiation for the dissolution process of individual metals and binary system. Two peaks of dissolution Cd-Pb film were observed for the binary system with different metal ion concentration ratios. The model of Scharifker and Hills was used to analyze the current transients and it revealed that Cd-Pb electrocrystalization processes at low concentration is governed by threedimensional progressive nucleation controlled by diffusion, while at higher concentration starts as a progressive nucleation then switch to instantaneous nucleation process. AFM images reveal that Cd-Pb film electrodeposited at low concentration is more roughness than Cd-Pb film electrodeposited at high concentrated solution.

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Electrodeposition of copper: the nucleation mechanisms

Cited by 608 publications

References 10 publications

3D Vanadium Oxide Inverse Opal Growth by Electrodeposition

3D Vanadium Oxide Inverse Opal Growth by Electrodeposition

Study on Co-Electrodeposition Mechanism of Au-30at.%Sn Eutectic in Non-Cyanide Bath by Electrochemical Methods

Preparation and Characterization of Electrodeposited Cadmium and Lead thin Films from a Diluted Chloride Solution

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