Embryonic stem cells growing in 3-dimensions shift from reliance on the substrate to each other for mechanical support

Cytoskeleton and plasma-membrane damage resulting from exposure to sustained deformations: A review of the mechanobiology of chronic wounds

“…Mechanical interactions of cells with their substrates have also been shown to affect differentiation, alignment, and migration capabilities [38][39][40] . In contrast, deformations applied to and by cell monolayers and tissue constructs, have shown the dynamics of mechanical interactions forming between developing cell groups and their substrates [41] as well as larger scale responses. For example, stretching airway smooth muscle cells modifies the mechanical interactions and changes the tissues function [35] .…”

Asymmetry in traction forces produced by migrating preadipocytes is bounded to 33%

“…The cells' migration cycle includes various complex processes that rely on mechanical interactions between the cell and the surrounding matrix, such as structural polarization of the adhered cell, extension of a protrusion at the leading edge, and retraction of the cell rear [5][6][7][8][9] . These types of mechanical processes require cells to apply forces between cells and on the surrounding matrix or substrate [10] . The stiffness of the substrate and variations in it can affect cell migration [11] .…”

Design Principles for Engineering of Tissues from Human Pluripotent Stem Cells

“…The primary intent of polymeric scaffolds is to provide physical support for cell survival and growth. Cell assembly onto scaffold materials is primarily mediated by cell-ECM adhesions such as integrins, which are transmembrane proteins on the cell surface that recognize peptide sequences found within many ECM molecules, thereby allowing cells to anchor to the surrounding scaffold [17, 18]. …”

“…Endogenously-driven 3D cell assembly stimulates an increase in intercellular adhesion molecules, such as cadherins and connexins [29, 30]. Cell-cell contact also plays important roles in maintaining pluripotency and facilitating downstream signaling, such as the Notch pathway, that regulates stem cell maintenance and self-renewal [17]. …”