Emergence of antibiotic-resistant extremophiles (AREs)

Abstract

Excessive use of antibiotics in recent years has produced bacteria that are resistant to a wide array of antibiotics. Several genetic and non-genetic elements allow microorganisms to adapt and thrive under harsh environmental conditions such as lethal doses of antibiotics. We attempt to classify these microorganisms as antibiotic-resistant extremophiles (AREs). AREs develop strategies to gain greater resistance to antibiotics via accumulation of multiple genes or plasmids that harbor genes for multiple drug resistance (MDR). In addition to their altered expression of multiple genes, AREs also survive by producing enzymes such as penicillinase that inactivate antibiotics. It is of interest to identify the underlying molecular mechanisms by which the AREs are able to survive in the presence of wide arrays of high-dosage antibiotics. Technologically, "omics"-based approaches such as genomics have revealed a wide array of genes differentially expressed in AREs. Proteomics studies with 2DE, MALDI-TOF, and MS/MS have identified specific proteins, enzymes, and pumps that function in the adaptation mechanisms of AREs. This article discusses the molecular mechanisms by which microorganisms develop into AREs and how "omics" approaches can identify the genetic elements of these adaptation mechanisms. These objectives will assist the development of strategies and potential therapeutics to treat outbreaks of pathogenic microorganisms in the future.

Pseudomonas fluorescens Isolation from Green Salads and Antibiotic Susceptibilities of Isolates

“…Excessive use of antibiotics has led to the emerging evolution of antibiotic-resistant bacteria [11][12][13]. And bacterial biofilms are inherently resistant to antibiotics.…”

Microbial occurrence and antibiotic resistance in ready-to-go food items

“…heat/cold, pressurizing, chemical, bio-preservation, and irradiation, have been created. However, some microorganisms can grow in extreme environments including high pressures, extreme radiation, aerobic and anaerobic conditions, high heat, antibiotics, and low temperatures (Gabani et al 2012;Woappi et al 2016). The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) recommends a variety of techniques to detect the presence of pathogenic microorganisms.…”

“…The antibiotic acts through a unique mechanism of action, but with the same end result to deactivate the pathogenic activity or killing of pathogenic bacteria (Franco et al 2009;Allen et al 2014;Sharma et al 2013). However, the overuse and misuse of antibiotics has led to the emerging evolution of antibiotic-resistant bacteria (Bhunia 2008;Gabani et al 2012;Woappi et al 2016;Berman and Riley 2013;Wellington et al 2013). The multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) bacteria in ready-toeat baby spinach have reported in gut microflora and other bacterial pathogens (Walia et al 2013).…”

Study of the Aminoglycoside Subsistence Phenotype of Bacteria Residing in the Gut of Humans and Zoo Animals

“…This phenotype is commonly referred to as “antibiotic subsistence” ( Dopazo et al, 1988 ; Dantas et al, 2008 ; Barnhill et al, 2011 ; Xin et al, 2012 ). In addition, the concept of bacteria subsisting on antibiotics has been referred to as “antibiotic-resistant extremophiles” ( Gabani et al, 2012 ) or “antibiotrophs” ( Woappi et al, 2014 ) These alternative terms depict the microorganisms as being able to subsist under harsh environmental conditions, e.g., elevated antibiotic concentrations or the use of antibiotics as the sole carbon source. In disagreement with the accumulating body of literature supporting the possibility of bacterial subsistence on antibiotics, Walsh et al (2013) tested whether soil bacteria could subsist on antibiotics.…”