Emergent Toxins in North Atlantic Temperate Waters: A Challenge for Monitoring Programs and Legislation

Abstract

Harmful Algal Blooms (HAB) are complex to manage due to their intermittent nature and their severe impact on the economy and human health. The conditions which promote HAB have not yet been fully explained, though climate change and anthropogenic intervention are pointed as significant factors. The rise of water temperature, the opening of new sea canals and the introduction of ship ballast waters all contribute to the dispersion and establishment of toxin-producing invasive species that promote the settling of emergent toxins in the food-chain. Tetrodotoxin, ciguatoxin, palytoxin and cyclic imines are commonly reported in warm waters but have also caused poisoning incidents in temperate zones. There is evidence that monitoring for these toxins exclusively in bivalves is simplistic and underestimates the risk to public health, since new vectors have been reported for these toxins and as well for regulated toxins such as PSTs and DSTs. In order to avoid public health impacts, there is a need for adequate monitoring programs, a need for establishing appropriate legislation, and a need for optimizing effective methods of analysis. In this review, we will compile evidence concerning emergent marine toxins and provide data that may indicate the need to restructure the current monitoring programs of HAB.

Release of neuropeptides from a neuro-cutaneous co-culture model: A novel in vitro model for studying sensory effects of ciguatoxins

“…Moreover, in recent years, CFP cases were reported in non endemic areas due to the expansion of tropical tourism and the increased export of tropical fishes (De Haro et al, 2003;Epelboin et al, 2014;Mattei at al., 2014). Global warming also has the potential to promote an expansion of the geographic range of ciguatera (Silva et al, 2015).…”

Characterisation of algicidal bacterial exometabolites against the lipid-accumulating diatom Skeletonema sp.

“…Bloom-forming microalgae are a major source of environmental distress which can be the cause of environmental damage by eutrophication whilst also being a source of risk to human health through the formation of harmful algal blooms [1] which are capable of generating exo-metabolites toxic to humans [2]. The existence of naturallyoccurring lytic agents which could be used to disrupt microalgal blooms is of increasing interest in the developing field of environmental biotechnology.…”

Transcriptomic Analysis of Ciguatoxin-Induced Changes in Gene Expression in Primary Cultures of Mice Cortical Neurons

“…A type of the toxins involved in ciguatera are ciguatoxins, which act through activation of voltage-gated sodium channels [ 1 , 2 ] causing neurological long-lasting alterations [ 3 , 12 , 13 ]. Ciguatera occurrence was initially limited to tropical and subtropical areas, but nowadays, ciguatera affects a very large and diverse population in previously nonendemic areas such as the USA, Canada, and even Europe [ 5 , 7 , 24 , 25 ]. Although ciguatera is rarely fatal, overall, the global number of human poisonings is estimated to be 50,000–500,000 cases per year [ 12 ].…”

“…Ciguatera fish poisoning is a seafood-borne illness caused by the consumption of fish contaminated with ciguatera toxins, produced by marine dinoflagellates of the genus Gambierdiscus . Until recently, this food poisoning was endemic in several tropical and subtropical areas; however, its occurrence is increasing worldwide and several cases have recently appeared in Europe [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 ] and it is also slowly spreading in Australia [ 8 , 9 , 10 , 11 ]. Among other symptoms, in humans, ciguatera fish poisoning is characterized by neurological alterations that may last for several months or even years, including paraesthesia, headache, weakness, cold allodynia, and sensory abnormalities such as pruritus, arthralgia, myalgia, and dental pain [ 12 , 13 ].…”