Environmental and decontamination issues for human coronaviruses and their potential surrogates

Abstract

Pandemic coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) gives ample reason to generally review coronavirus (CoV) containment. For establishing some preliminary views on decontamination and disinfection, surrogate CoVs have commonly been assessed. This review serves to examine the existing science in regard to CoV containment generically and then to translate these findings into timely applications for COVID-19. There is widespread dissemination of CoVs in the immediate patient environment, and CoVs can potentially be spread via respiratory secretions, urine, and stool. Interpretations of the spread however must consider whether studies examine for viral RNA, virus viability by culture, or both. Presymptomatic, asymptomatic, and post-14 day virus excretion from patients may complicate the epidemiology. Whereas droplet spread is accepted, there continues to be controversy over the extent of possible airborne spread and especially now for severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). CoVs are stable in body secretions and sewage at reduced temperatures. In addition to temperature, dryness or relative humidity, initial viral burden, concomitant presence of bioburden, and the type of surface can all affect stability. Generalizing, CoVs can be susceptible to radiation, temperature extremes, pH extremes, peroxides, halogens, aldehydes, many solvents, and several alcohols. Whereas detergent surfactants can have some direct activity, these agents are better used as complements to a complex disinfectant solution. Disinfectants with multiple agents and adverse pH are more likely to be best active at higher water temperatures. Real-life assessments should be encouraged with working dilutions. The use of decontamination and disinfection should be balanced with considerations of patient and caregiver safety. Processes should also be balanced with considerations for other potential pathogens that must be targeted. Given some CoV differences and given that surrogate testing provides experimental correlates at best, direct assessments with SARS-CoV, Middle East respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus (MERS-CoV), and SARS-CoV-2 are required.

Combating SARS-CoV-2: leveraging microbicidal experiences with other emerging/re-emerging viruses

“…This assumption has, in fact, been verified by extensive empirical data ( Klein & Deforest, 1983 ; Sattar et al, 1989 ; McDonnell & Russell, 1999 ; Rabenau et al, 2005 ; Sattar, 2007 ; Ijaz & Rubino, 2008 ; Geller, Varbanov & Duval, 2012 ; Cook et al, 2015 , 2016 ; Cutts et al, 2018 , 2019 , 2020 ; Weber et al, 2019 ; Chin et al, 2020 ; Ijaz et al, 2020 ; Kampf et al, 2020 ; O’Donnell et al, 2020 ; Vaughan et al, 2020 ; Yu et al, 2020 ; Castaño et al, 2020 ), and has been embraced by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2016 ). The data for various members of the Coronaviridae family, reviewed recently by Kampf et al (2020) , Cimolai (2020) , and Golin, Choi & Ghahary (2020) support the expectation that SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses of concern (e.g., MERS-CoV, SARS-CoV, mouse hepatitis virus, porcine epidemic diarrhea virus, etc.) should be readily inactivated by commonly employed and commercially available formulated microbicides, including QAC.…”

Microbicidal actives with virucidal efficacy against SARS-CoV-2 and other beta- and alpha-coronaviruses: implications for future emerging coronaviruses and other enveloped viruses

“…The data on the survival of SARS-CoV-2 on surfaces [14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21]41 , like previous data obtained for other coronaviruses [41][42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49] , demonstrate that viral persistence (survival) on HITES is dependent upon: 1) the type of surface, 2) the presence and type of organic matrix in which the virus is suspended at the time of deposition and drying upon the surface, and 3) time. The survival data for SARS-CoV-2 dried on surfaces (Table 1) indicate that the virus remains infectious longer on hard non-porous surfaces, such as plastic and stainless steel, than on wood or cardboard.…”

“…Our e cacy data presented herein con rm this, and indicate that the virucidal activities are approximately equivalent for a variety of alpha-and beta-coronaviruses. In addition, reviews and empirical reports of the e cacy of microbicides against SARS-CoV-2 10,21,46,47 and other coronaviruses 23,42,[44][45][46][47]59 have con rmed the expected virucidal e cacy of a variety of microbicides against these viruses in surface disinfection studies. E cacy of microbicides tested in suspension studies has been discussed in recent reviews and empirical reports of the e cacy of microbicides against SARS-CoV-2 10,14,21,47 and other coronaviruses 42,44,46,47,59,60 .…”

Classification of aerosol-generating procedures: a rapid systematic review

“…Viruses lose viability at different rates, depending on the virus family and functional surface characteristics, droplet expulsion mode and stability, environment, and time. [3][4][5] Susceptible persons in the vicinity of an infected individual can therefore become infected through multiple particle routes, including inhaling close to the source or touching and transferring particles that have landed on surfaces. Expelled particles can spread widely in a room in a short time after a cough, [6][7][8] and cases are recorded where infectious material has dispersed through ventilation systems or windows.…”