Environmental Factors and the Risk of Developing Type 1 Diabetes—Old Disease and New Data

Abstract

The incidence of type 1 diabetes (T1D) is increasing worldwide. The onset of T1D usually occurs in childhood and is caused by the selective destruction of insulin-producing pancreatic islet cells (β-cells) by autoreactive T cells, leading to insulin deficiency. Despite advanced research and enormous progress in medicine, the causes of T1D are still not fully understood. Therefore, an extensive online search for scientific research on environmental factors associated with diabetes and the identification of new factors of unexplained etiology has been carried out using the PubMed, Cochrane, and Embase databases. The search results were limited to the past 11 years of research and discovered 143 manuscripts published between 2011 and 2022. Additionally, 21 manuscripts from between 2000 and 2010 and 3 manuscripts from 1974 to 2000 were referenced for historical reference as the first studies showcasing a certain phenomenon or mechanism. More and more scientists are inclined to believe that environmental factors are responsible for the increased incidence of diabetes. Research results show that higher T1D incidence is associated with vitamin D deficiency, a colder climate, and pollution of the environment, as well as the influence of viral, bacterial, and yeast-like fungi infections. The key viral infections affecting the risk of developing T1DM are rubella virus, mumps virus, Coxsackie virus, cytomegalovirus, and enterovirus. Since 2020, i.e., from the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, more and more studies have been looking for a link between Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and diabetes development. A better understanding of the role of viral, bacterial, and yeast-like fungi infections related to the risk of T1DM in children and adolescents and the identification of new risk factors, especially those spread by the droplet route, is of great importance for people and families with diabetes.

Reprogramming Metabolism of Macrophages as a Target for Kidney Dysfunction Treatment in Autoimmune Diseases

“…The possible influence of environmental factors such as bacterial and viral infections could also be linked to the development of type 1 diabetes because the GAD molecule has a similar amino acid sequence to proteins from sources such as cytomegalovirus, coxsackie virus, and adenovirus, etc. ; pancreatic β-cells may be misidentified and killed by the immune system when infected [ 112 ]. Toll-like receptors (TLRs) play an important role in innate immunity.…”

Air Pollution, Oxidative Stress, and the Risk of Development of Type 1 Diabetes

“…Particulate matter is made up of inorganic and organic elements, as well as nitrates and sulfates. By adsorbing to the surface of ambient PM, particularly PM 2.5 , viruses, bacteria, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), and heavy metals can be carried [ 9 , 10 , 49 , 50 ]. Due to growing car use and traffic congestion, traffic emissions are a major source of heavy metal pollution in the environment [ 9 ].…”

Two putative glutamate decarboxylases of Streptococcus pneumoniae as possible antigens for the production of anti-GAD65 antibodies leading to type 1 diabetes mellitus

“…The causes of the destructive process of β cells in the pancreas are not fully understood, but a likely explanation is that the combination of genetic susceptibility (conferred by a large number of genes) (Redondo et al 1999) and an environmental trigger -such as gut dysbiosis including changes to the gut microbiota, intestinal permeability, and intestinal in ammation -can initiate the autoimmune reaction (Vatanen et Zorena et al 2022). A possible infectious origin (in this particular case, the mumps virus) for T1DM was already proposed near a century ago (Gundersen 1927).…”