Environmental injustice and childhood lead exposure in peri-urban (ger) areas of Darkhan and Erdenet, Mongolia

Abstract

BackgroundThe ger (“tent city”) areas in Mongolia are a product of rapid urbanization and transitional economic development combine with lack of institutional, administrative and financial capacity of governments to cope with the pace. These areas have become traps for inequities in social and environmental services and the associated effects on human health. Disparities in childhood lead exposure in such communities are largely unexplored.MethodsWe measured the concentrations of lead in blood of children, aged 4–7 years, in Erdenet (Orkhon Province) and Darkhan (Darkhan-Uul Province), the second and third largest cities in Mongolia. A survey instrument was used to gather information on influencing factors on lead exposure and the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ) was used to assess a spectrum of behavioral problems among the children.ResultsThe mean blood lead level (BLL) of children in the two cities was found to be 3.8 ± 2.6 μg/dL (range: < 1.5–17.2 μg/dL) and 27.8% of the children had BLLs ≥5 μg/dL. Average BLL of children in Erdenet (a mining center) was significantly higher than that for children in Darkhan, and there was statistically significant difference between average BLL of children who live in ger district (4.2 ± 2.8 μg/dL) compared to those of children in housing units within the city (3.2 ± 2.4 μg/dL). In spite of the low values, BLLs was significantly associated with a number of effects on the spectrum of behavioral disorders, specifically with the scores for hyperactivity, conduct disorder and pro-social behavior.ConclusionsThis study shows that childhood lead poisoning is common especially in ger communities of the urban areas of Mongolia. It contributes evidence showing that BLL low as 3.8 μg/dL can selectively activate some effects from a spectrum of likely behavioral disorders in children.

Blood lead levels and lead toxicity in children aged 1-5 years of Cinangka Village, Bogor Regency

“…This study did not find a significant relationship between BLL and the nutritional status of the respondents. This finding is in line with study in Mongolia which did not find a relationship between BLL and children’s weight or height [ 31 ]. It is also in line with a cohort study conducted on 1074 newborns in Australia [ 32 ].…”

Lead Hair Level Impact on Mongolian Children with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder

“…The average blood lead level of children in Erdenet (a mining center) was significantly higher than that for children in Darkhan, and there was a statistically significant difference between the average blood lead level of children who live in ger districts (4.2 ± 2.8 μg/dL) compared to those of children living in city apartments (3.2 ± 2.4 μg/dL). Despite the low values, blood lead levels were significantly associated with several effects on the spectrum of behavioral disorders, specifically with the scores for hyperactivity, conduct disorder, and prosocial behavior [32]. Based on our survey, children who live in ger districts have higher levels of hair lead compared with children who live in apartments.…”

Environmental health survey for children residing near mining areas in South Gobi, Mongolia

“…In addition, our study of the 3 areas produced lower values compared to a study of 120 children in Ulaanbaatar (2005) that reported a blood lead concentration of 16.54 ± 9.5 µg/dL [ 12 ]. However, the blood lead concentration was also higher than in another study of 153 children of ages 7–14 in Ulaanbataar (2014) that reported a concentration of 5.3 µg/dL (95% CI, 4.9–5.7 µg/dL) [ 13 ], and a study of 338 children of ages 4–7 in 2 cities (2017), Darkhan and Erdenet, that reported a concentration of 3.85 µg/dL [ 14 ]. Based on these 3 studies, children living in rural areas in households that use heaters showed a much higher blood lead concentration than children living in urban apartments with central heating.…”