Epidemiologic significance of Toxoplasma gondii infections in turkeys, ducks, ratites and other wild birds: 2009–2020

Abstract

Toxoplasma gondii infections are common in humans and animals worldwide. Wild and domestic avian species are important in the epidemiology of T. gondii infections because felids prey on them and excrete millions of oocysts in the environment, disseminating the infection. Herbivorous birds are also excellent sentinels of environmental contamination with T. gondii oocysts because they feed on the ground. Toxoplasma gondii infections in birds of prey reflect infections in intermediate hosts. Humans can become infected by consuming undercooked avian tissues. Here, the authors reviewed prevalence, persistence of infection, clinical disease, epidemiology and genetic diversity of T. gondii strains isolated from turkeys, geese, ducks, ratites and avian species (excluding chickens) worldwide 2009–2020. Genetic diversity of 102 T. gondii DNA samples isolated worldwide is discussed. The role of migratory birds in dissemination of T. gondii infection is discussed.

Molecular Survey on Toxoplasma gondii and Neospora caninum Infection in Wild Birds of Prey Admitted to Recovery Centers in Northern Italy

“…For both parasites, a sylvatic cycle is described as interfacing with the domestic cycle, which is often considered to be the primary cause of infection in livestock farms [3]. In fact, both pathogens were demonstrated by serological, histological, or molecular studies in several wildlife species comprising birds, as recently reviewed [4,5]. Among the avian species, birds of prey are of particular interest because, acquiring the infections mainly through the ingestion of infected preys (other birds, or small mammals), they can be used as sentinel species of environmental contamination with these parasites [4].…”

Genetic characterizations of Cryptosporidium spp. from pet rodents indicate high zoonotic potential of pathogens from chinchillas

“…[ 7 ]. Thus far, at least 15 known Cryptosporidium species ( C. parvum , C. ubiquitum , C. viatorum , C. andersoni , C. muris , C. wrairi , C. homai , C. tyzzeri , C. apodemi , C. ditrichi , C. microti , C. alticolis , C. rubeyi , C. occultus , and C. rati ) and 28 genotypes (rat genotypes II-V, ferret genotype, chipmunk genotypes I-V, bamboo rat genotypes I-III, hamster genotype, squirrel genotypes I-III, muskrat genotypes I-II, apodemus genotypes I-II, vole genotypes I-VII and Brandt's vole genotype I) have been identified [ [8] , [9] , [10] , [11] , [12] , [13] , [14] , [15] , [16] , [17] , [18] , [19] , [20] , [21] , [22] , [23] , [24] ]. Therefore, rodents are considered reservoirs of some zoonotic Cryptosporidium spp.…”

Toxoplasma gondii infection in white spoonbills ( Platalea leucorodia ) from Henan Province, China

“…Birds are considered resistant to clinical toxoplasmosis. The serological response for T. gondii infection in birds was erratic and transient, the serological results of T. gondii should be interpreted with caution [2][3]. White spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia), as a large wading bird, they obtain food from water, sludge, or the ground.…”

“…gondii strains isolated from avian species (excluding chickens) worldwide, most from Anseriformes, Columbiformes and Accipitriformes [2][3]. However, only one T. gondii strain isolated from Pelecaniformes [14].…”

“…Genetic diversity of T. gondii isolates from birds follows the global patterns, with ToxoDB #1, #3, and #2 being dominant in Africa and Europe [3]. 22 DNA extracted from tissues of birds from China were genotyped, they were ToxoDB #10, #1, #3 and #9 [3]. TgSpoonbillCHn1 was the first genotyped strain from viable T. gondii isolate in birds from China.…”