“…Obfuscation techniques, such as blurring, can be applied over images to protect individuals ( Chan et al., 2008 ), but these require intensive processing over the images, which is difficult to achieve in real-time. Privacy concerns can be alleviated by adopting thermal cameras for crowd detection ( Abuarafah, Khozium, AbdRabou, 2012 , Flores, Hamberg, Li, Malmivirta, Zuniga, Lagerspetz, Nurmi, 2020 , Rinta-Homi, Motlagh, Zuniga, Flores, Nurmi, 2021 ). The use of direct thermal radiation estimates is similarly intrusive as the use of regular cameras, but it is also possible to rely on indirect measurements of individuals that result from interactions with the environment.…”