European ceramic technology in the Far East: enamels and pigments in Japanese art from the 16th to the 20th century and their reverse influence on China

Abstract

The production of Japanese enamels for porcelain decoration was thought to have originated from the direct and exclusive influence of Chinese potters who moved to Japan during the chaotic Ming to Qing dynastic change in 1644. Recent systematic studies have identified, for the first time, the crucial influence of Jesuit missionaries on pigment and enamel production in Japan from the late 16th-century. In particular, such first encounter laid the foundation for the continued influence exerted by European technology on Japanese art throughout the centuries. The present study has further identified European enamels used for the decoration of polychrome wares fired in Arita, the porcelain production center of Japan. This continued exchange not only marked the Edo period, but also extended into the twentieth century. For the first time, the lack of written records regarding the use of western pigments for enamel production caused by the persecutions of European and Japanese Christians has been overcome in the work herein presented. The nature of the imported materials has been firmly identified and characterized. The analytical results (EDXRF and Raman) have finally revealed how western technology and materials not only kept influencing Japanese art during the isolation (sakoku) period, but also accompanied the strong westernization process that marked Japanese history from the late nineteenth century. Moreover, the significant reverse influence of Japanese-made enamels on Chinese polychrome porcelain production in the late Qing and twentieth century has been fully identified for the first time. Furthermore, results show that the shift of the Pb mode of lead antimonate (Naples Yellow) is affected by the firing temperature for enamel decoration, and that this characteristic, along with the chemical composition, enables the identification of the origin and manufacture period of the yellow enamel.

Non-Invasive On-Site Raman Study of Pigments and Glassy Matrix of 17th–18th Century Painted Enamelled Chinese Metal Wares: Comparison with French Enamelling Technology

“…Cobalt in association with iron, nickel, manganese was detected in the blue enamelled area. Observation of relatively high level of iron is consistent with the use of Asian cobalt ores but medium level of manganese and arsenic may correspond to mixing of both Asian and European cobalts, as also reported for Asian potters [36][37][38]76]. Tin was well detected in the yellow enamelled area together with traces of antimony, showing consistency with the Raman data.…”

“…At least, three types of Naples yellow lead pyrochlore pigments are distinguished in the literature by Raman scattering and observed in the studied artefacts with the following subgroups: (i) a first type characterised with a low-wavenumber strongest peak at~128-129 cm −1 and peaks of lower intensity at~245,~325, 435 and~525 cm −1 (see e.g., Figure 5D right); (ii) a second type with the strongest peak at~135-140 cm −1 and peaks of lower intensity at~320-335, 440-450 and~520 cm −1 (see e.g., Figure 7A,C); (iii) a third one displaying similar features but with additional low intensity peaks at~375,~470 cm −1 (Figure 5B left); (iv) a fourth one displaying similar features with the others but with an additional strong component at~510 cm −1 with its intensity being similar with that of the low wavenumber one at~135 cm −1 (Figure 7A,C). This strong low wavenumber peak arises from the vibration of Pb 2+ ions and its wavenumber position both depends on the composition and firing temperature [36][37][38][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62]: the peak wavenumber decreases when the firing temperature increases.…”

“…Even Raman spectra recorded on Roman mosaic tesserae show a variable intensity of the~130-140 vs.~510 cm −1 band ratio, demonstrating the early use of different compositions of lead pyrochlore yellow pigment [51]. The scientific literature [36][37][38][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62] agrees that controlled use of the different compositions first developed for the production of majolica, and then the complete palette was first identified in the enamels on metal of the 17th-to 18th-century French enamelled clocks and watches [24].…”

“…Their use was also confirmed in Byzantine glazed pottery [52], then continued with the onset of the Renaissance to later periods as a major pigment of ceramic glazes (majolica) and glasses as well as paintings [53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62]. Consequently, due to the strong characteristic Raman signature easily obtained (due to the very high polarizability of the Pb-O bond) and wide range of compositions accepted by the pyrochlore structure which can be used as the specific signature of a workshop, many analytical studies have dealt with this pigment class up to now [12,13,24,[26][27][28][29][30][36][37][38][50][51][52][53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62].…”

“…Outcomes will also be compared with the enamelling technology of cloisonné artefacts produced during the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644) and earlier periods. The study is expected to provide arguments to identify the use of imported enamels or imported enamel recipes from Europe to China at the end of the 17th century under the guidance of Jesuits as reported in the historical records [17][18][19][20][21], in a similar way as that occurred from Europe to Japan during the first part of the 17th century [36][37][38].…”