Evaluation ofMetaphycusspp. for Suppression of Black Scale (Homoptera: Coccidae) on Southern California Citrus

Encyrtid Parasitoids of Soft Scale Insects: Biology, Behavior, and Their Use in Biological Control

“…The long life span of many encyrtid parasitoids, when they are provided with carbohydrates, is advantageous for their biological control potential because mass-reared parasitoids can be stored for a considerable time before release. M. flavus used in augmentative releases against Coccus pseudomagnoliarum and Saissetia oleae in California can be up to seven days old at the time of release (107)(108)(109). Alternatively, the provisioning of hosts between emergence and release may increase the quality of mass-reared parasitoids because, apart from obtaining nutrients to mature eggs by host feeding, some encyrtids deprived of hosts for many days resorb all their eggs and are unable to oviposit for several days when again given hosts (9, 44).…”

Taxon-specific multiplex-PCR for quick, easy, and accurate identification of encyrtid and aphelinid parasitoid species attacking soft scale insects in California citrus groves

“…This will prove invaluable for accurately assessing the latter species as a potential biological control agent for the suppression of citricola scale and black scale in California citrus (Bernal et al 1999(Bernal et al , 2001Schweizer et al 2003). As reported by Guerrieri and Noyes (2000), it should be noted here that M. flavus and M. luteolus (both originally described from the USA) may still actually be synonymous, and that the species collected in Turkey and referred to herein as M. flavus, may represent a valid, undescribed species.…”

“…A further species of Metaphycus that has attracted the attention of citrus researchers in California is M. flavus (Howard) (Bernal et al 1999;Schweizer et al 2002Schweizer et al , 2003. This species was collected in 1996 from citricola scale at Kozan, Turkey, and has since been introduced to central California's San Joaquin Valley for the biological control of citricola scale (Bernal et al 1999;Schweizer et al 2002), and to southern California orchards for the control of black scale (Schweizer et al 2003).…”

“…This species was collected in 1996 from citricola scale at Kozan, Turkey, and has since been introduced to central California's San Joaquin Valley for the biological control of citricola scale (Bernal et al 1999;Schweizer et al 2002), and to southern California orchards for the control of black scale (Schweizer et al 2003). However, it is unknown whether this species has established in either region, at least in part because it is morphologically indistinguishable from the native M. luteolus.…”

“…Here we present a molecular identification method based on multiplex-PCR, enabling rapid and reliable identification of ten parasitoid species (from three genera), which are (Kapranas et al 2007), or through augmentative releases may become (Bernal et al 1999;Schweizer et al 2002Schweizer et al , 2003, part of the complex of parasitoids attacking soft scales in California citrus groves: Metaphycus luteolus, M. stanleyi (M. swirskii), M angustifrons, M. helvolus, M. flavus, Microterys nietneri, Coccophagus cowperi (Girault), C. lycimnia, C. rusti (Compere), and C. semicircularis (Forster). Of these, M. luteolus is the only California native, the others having been originally imported into California for release against various soft scale species (Bartlett 1978;Daane et al 1991;Lampson and Morse 1992;Bernal et al 1999).…”