Evaluation of the neurotoxic effects of intrathecal administration of (S)-(+)-Ketoprofen on rat spinal cords: randomized controlled experimental study

Epidural and Intrathecal Drug Delivery in Rats and Mice for Experimental Research: Fundamental Concepts, Techniques, Precaution, and Application

“…Furthermore, the intraspinal intrathecal space [16,17] and intracerebroventricular route through the brain parenchyma into the lateral ventricles of the brain have been used to directly access the CSF [1]. However, the intraspinal/intrathecal route is broadly used because it is less invasive and is suitable for chronic use with surgical catheterization [13,18] and for direct single-dose injections via needle puncturing [6,17,19].…”

“…To solve this problem, the dead space can first be filled with the injected agent, and the targeted volume should then be withdrawn in the syringe and then injected. Another method is by flushing with an equal volume of saline to replace the dead space occupied by the drugs [3,14,18]. However, care should be taken to prevent air bubbles when changing the syringe, which may cause adverse effects such as the alteration of subarachnoid pressure and injury to the nerves or meninges [55].…”

“…Epidural and intrathecal catheterization are convenient and less stressful for animals when applying multiple doses for long-term medication. Intrathecal catheterization is administered in the atlanto-occipital and thoracolumbar regions [18,43], but epidural catheterization is only administered in the thoracolumbar region (Tables 4 and 5). Catheters are inserted into the epidural and intrathecal space either through the intraspinal space by penetrating/cutting the ligament flavum [20,43] or by laminectomy (e.g., dorsal laminectomy, lateral laminectomy) [20].…”

“…Catheters are inserted into the epidural and intrathecal space either through the intraspinal space by penetrating/cutting the ligament flavum [20,43] or by laminectomy (e.g., dorsal laminectomy, lateral laminectomy) [20]. In addition, atlanto-occipital catheterization is conducted by penetrating the anterior atlanto-occipital membrane that joins the upper cranial border of the anterior arch of the atlas (C1) to the anterior inferior surface of the foramen magnum [13,18]. The catheter is usually extended from L4 to L6 until the lumbar enlargement region [11,56] because the spinal nerves of these regions have pain and motor function-related clinical significance for supplying the hind legs.…”

“…Additionally, 3 days after surgery, 10 µL of 2% lidocaine is often added to observe temporary motor paralysis and sensory loss for 20-40 min. If this does not occur, the animal should be excluded [14,18,49,49]. For epidural catheterization, animals should be excluded if CSF is aspirated or behaviors associated with dura mater puncture are observed [2] because epidural catheters should remain in the epidural space and above the dura mater where CSF is absent.…”