Evolution of Large Mammal Herbivores in Savannas

The Large American Liver Fluke (Fascioloides magna): A Survivor’s Journey through a Constantly Changing World

“…The early fossil record of grasses dates back to the Late Cretaceous; however, until the Miocene, grasses did not form extensive grassland ecosystems [44]. The previously woodland-dominated vegetation turned to more open, savanna-type environments [54,55]. This period coincided with the Messinian Event 6.0-5.3 MYA, when the Mediterranean dried up and the world's oceans became less saline [56].…”

“…The diversification of GR and the decline of BR were initiated during the Miocene and accelerated through the MPB. This process was more rapid in North America than in the rest of the world [55].…”

“…Proboscideans are mostly browser herbivores, which means that they depend on woody and non-woody dicotyledonous plants, leaves, and barks of trees as food sources [44,56]. Owing to the enhanced competition with other ungulate clades that evolved specialist grazing ecomorphs, the extinction of the proboscidean species accelerated around 8 MYA, after the onset of grassland-dominated habitats [48,55].…”

“…Multiple extinction events occurred during the Late Pleistocene, mainly over the last 100,000 years, with a peak between 12,000 and 10,000 years ago [44,55]. The most severely affected fauna was large-bodied herbivores above 1000 kg body weight.…”

“…The most severely affected fauna was large-bodied herbivores above 1000 kg body weight. Especially in the Americas, where 100% of this sized species became extinct [55]. This era of natural history is characterised by the human presence.…”