Evolution of Liu Kang’s Palette and Painting Practice for the Execution of Female Nude Paintings: The Analytical Investigation of a Genre

Abstract

The comprehensive technical investigation of female nude paintings by the Singapore pioneer artist Liu Kang (1911–2004) provided the evidence for a discussion of the evolution of his palette of colours and his working process for expression in this genre, particularly the execution of female bodies. As the artist’s free expression in classical nude paintings was limited by the censorship imposed by the Singapore government, the investigated artworks span two periods, 1927–1954 (early career) and 1992–1999 (the “golden years”, during which censorship policies were relaxed). Hence, eight paintings from the Liu family and National Gallery Singapore were selected for non- and micro-invasive analyses of the paint layers. The obtained results were supplemented with archival sources to elucidate certain aspects of Liu Kang’s working practice. The investigation revealed the importance of drawing and sketching studies in the development of artistic ideas. The analytical techniques, such as polarised light microscopy (PLM), field emission scanning electron microscope with energy dispersive spectroscopy (FE-SEM-EDS) and attenuated total reflectance–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), enabled us to observe a transition from the yellow iron-based tonal ranges of skin colours to complex pigment mixtures composed of additions of cobalt blue, ultramarine, Prussian blue, Cr-containing yellow(s) and green(s), cadmium yellow, orange and/or red and organic reds, revealing the artist’s more liberal use of colours and his experimentation with their contrasting and complementary juxtaposes. In terms of painting technique, the artist’s comparatively laborious paint application using small brushes quickly gave way to a more effortless manipulation of the paint using bigger brushes and the incorporation of palette knives. Moreover, visible light (VIS), near-infrared (NIR) and X-ray radiography (XRR) imaging techniques led to the discovery of a hidden composition in one investigated artwork, which bears resemblance to the nude painting known only from an archival photograph. Additionally, for the first time, the archival search provided photographic evidence that Liu Kang used oil paint tubes from Royal Talens and Rowney in the 1990s. Overall, this in-depth investigation contributes to the understanding of Liu Kang’s approach to the female nude painting and may assist conservators and art historians in studies of twentieth-century commercial paints.

Observations on Selected Aspects of Liu Kang’s Painting Practice

“…Hence, it can be hypothesised that once he lost inspiration or was dissatisfied with the outcome, he was able to abandon the subject or redo it. Chinese bridge over river is not an isolated example of a major alteration of the composition, as a similar approach was reported earlier with regard to Beauties at rest II (1998) (Lizun et al, 2022b). With regard to the reasons behind the recycling of the former compositions, the XRR imaging of artworks from Liu Kang's Paris (1929-1932 and Shanghai (1933Shanghai ( -1937 artistic phases did not detect any major ground layer losses that could have encouraged such practice.…”

“…Besides consisting of compositional and colouristic changes, which were often conducted in distinct stages, his creative process was also shaped by unpredictable emotions. Hence, some of his artistic outcomes remain difficult to interpret (Lizun et al, 2022b). Moreover, the artist's painting practice was also impacted by financial difficulties or the lack of art materials.…”

“…Additionally, the artist's painting practice is characterised by various unconventional technical solutions. For instance, the alteration of completed compositions is a frequently observed feature of the paint layers (Lizun, 2021a;Lizun et al, 2022a;Lizun et al, 2022b), even though the artist thoroughly studied the subject…”

Painting Materials and Technique for the Expression of Chinese Inheritance in Liu Kang’s Huangshan and Guilin Landscapes (1977–1996)

“…The adopted research strategy relied on the methods used by the authors in the previous investigation campaigns of Liu Kang’s paintings [ 6 , 13 , 16 ]. Such an approach ensured the consistency of the acquired data and their interpretation.…”

“…That is why I have tried to reveal the robust spirit, profound contents and refined taste of her culture in my paintings” [ 12 ]. Hence, the adopted painting style and technique for depicting the mountainous Chinese landscapes radically differ from those seen in his early artistic phases associated with practices in Paris [ 13 ] and Shanghai [ 14 ], post-war Singapore [ 15 ], Nanyang style artworks [ 6 ] as well as his special theme of Nudes [ 16 ]. The ethereal style [ 1 ] of the investigated paintings conveys a unique atmosphere of the mountainous landscapes, characterised by the rough structure of the majestic rocks and heavy clouds, which contrasted with delicate vegetation and moisture that obliterates the shapes of the mountains.…”