This article presents an overview of Liu Kang’s (1911–2004) canvas painting supports from his early artistic phases, Paris (1929–1932) and Shanghai (1932–1937). The research was conducted on 55 artworks from the collections of the National Gallery Singapore and Liu family. The technical examination of the paintings was supplemented with archival photographs of the artist at work to elucidate his practice of preparation of painting supports. The analyses conducted with light microscopy, SEM–EDS, and FTIR allowed us to characterise the structure of the canvases and identify the natural fibres and formulation of the grounds. In addition, references to contemporary colourmen catalogues, in relation to certain materials, were made. The obtained results suggest that, in both locations, Liu Kang employed commercially prepared canvases purchased by the roll or by the metre, together with bare strainers or stretchers of standard sizes. In Paris, the artist commonly used linen canvases, while in Shanghai he preferred cotton canvases, with linen used sporadically. The identified grounds from the Paris and Shanghai canvases are white and single-layered, but their formulations vary significantly between the two locations. Hence, grounds composed predominantly of lead white with extenders and drying oil as a binder are considered as exclusive to the Paris phase. However, semi-absorbent or absorbent grounds based on chalk are typical for Shanghai phase. This research contributes to the knowledge of Liu Kang’s painting materials and working practices during the pre-war period in Paris and Shanghai.

This paper presents an overview of the results from the ongoing study on the materials and painting technique of the pioneering Singapore artist-Liu Kang. The paintings Zuo La Lu and Nude, which represent two of Liu Kang's early and distinct artistic phases-Paris and Shanghai-were investigated for the first time using a combination of non-and micro-invasive techniques. The aim of this study was to identify the main pigments used by the artist and to add to the existing research on the artist's painting methods. The results show that the majority of pigments used in both paintings are similar and include Prussian blue, ultramarine, viridian, strontium yellow, chrome yellow, cadmium yellow, iron oxides, lead, zinc and barium whites, bone black and organic red. Particularly interesting is the predominance of lead white in Zuo La Lu and zinc white in Nude. A comparison of the ground layers also indicates the presence of a lead white admixture in Zuo La Lu while its absence in Nude may point to a characteristic difference between two artistic phases, possibly determined by the availability of materials. The imaging methods revealed hidden compositions: the view of a canal house behind Zuo La Lu, and a mystery outdoor view behind Nude. Although these investigative methods permitted some visualisation of the discarded compositions, it remains difficult to determine their details.

The comprehensive technical investigation of female nude paintings by the Singapore pioneer artist Liu Kang (1911–2004) provided the evidence for a discussion of the evolution of his palette of colours and his working process for expression in this genre, particularly the execution of female bodies. As the artist’s free expression in classical nude paintings was limited by the censorship imposed by the Singapore government, the investigated artworks span two periods, 1927–1954 (early career) and 1992–1999 (the “golden years”, during which censorship policies were relaxed). Hence, eight paintings from the Liu family and National Gallery Singapore were selected for non- and micro-invasive analyses of the paint layers. The obtained results were supplemented with archival sources to elucidate certain aspects of Liu Kang’s working practice. The investigation revealed the importance of drawing and sketching studies in the development of artistic ideas. The analytical techniques, such as polarised light microscopy (PLM), field emission scanning electron microscope with energy dispersive spectroscopy (FE-SEM-EDS) and attenuated total reflectance–Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), enabled us to observe a transition from the yellow iron-based tonal ranges of skin colours to complex pigment mixtures composed of additions of cobalt blue, ultramarine, Prussian blue, Cr-containing yellow(s) and green(s), cadmium yellow, orange and/or red and organic reds, revealing the artist’s more liberal use of colours and his experimentation with their contrasting and complementary juxtaposes. In terms of painting technique, the artist’s comparatively laborious paint application using small brushes quickly gave way to a more effortless manipulation of the paint using bigger brushes and the incorporation of palette knives. Moreover, visible light (VIS), near-infrared (NIR) and X-ray radiography (XRR) imaging techniques led to the discovery of a hidden composition in one investigated artwork, which bears resemblance to the nude painting known only from an archival photograph. Additionally, for the first time, the archival search provided photographic evidence that Liu Kang used oil paint tubes from Royal Talens and Rowney in the 1990s. Overall, this in-depth investigation contributes to the understanding of Liu Kang’s approach to the female nude painting and may assist conservators and art historians in studies of twentieth-century commercial paints.

This paper presents the results of an extensive study of 14 paintings by the pioneering Singapore artist Liu Kang (1911–2004). The paintings are from the National Gallery Singapore and Liu family collections. The aim of the study is to elucidate the painting technique and materials from the artist’s early oeuvre, Paris, spanning the period from 1929 to 1932. The artworks were studied with a wide array of non- and micro-invasive analytical techniques, supplemented with the historical information derived from the Liu family archives and contemporary colourmen catalogues. The results showed that the artist was able to create compositions with a limited colour palette and had a preferential use of commercially available ultramarine, viridian, chrome yellow, iron oxides, organic reds, lead white, and bone black bound in oil that was highlighted. This study identified other minor pigments that appeared as hue modifications or were used sporadically, such as cobalt blue, Prussian blue, emerald green, cadmium yellow, cobalt yellow, and zinc white. With regard to the painting technique, the artist explored different styles and demonstrated a continuous development of his brushwork and was undoubtedly influenced by Modernists’ artworks. This comprehensive technical study of Liu Kang’s paintings from the Paris phase may assist art historians and conservators in the evaluation of the artist’s early career and aid conservation diagnostics and treatment of his artworks. Furthermore, the identified painting materials can be compared with those used by other artists active in Paris during the same period.

Liu Kang (1911–2004) was renowned Singapore artist trained in Shanghai and Paris, and known for his contributions to the Nanyang style—an art movement practised by migrant Chinese painters in Singapore between the late 1940s to the 1960s. The style depicts aspects of the tropical way of life, synthetising the artistic traditions of the School of Paris and Chinese ink painting with remarkable stylistic innovations. The aim of this study was to characterise Liu Kang’s painting materials and technique by way of ten paintings from a significant period in his oeuvre, 1950–1958, during which his Nanyang style emerged. The selected artworks are from the National Gallery Singapore. A broad range of analytical techniques was employed to study the painting supports and paint layers. The results indicate the prevailing use of commercially prepared linen canvases with double-layered oil-based ground. Single- and triple-layered structures of the ground, as well as semi-absorbent ground, were used sporadically. The identified group of pigments partially overlaps with those already known from Liu Kang’s earlier practice and also incorporates some noteworthy peculiarities like manganese, cerulean and phthalocyanine blues, phthalocyanine green, zinc yellow, and naphthol red AS-D. Some of these newly identified pigments made a distinctive appearance in the individual artworks, but ultimately Liu Kang was not convinced about increasing their role in his painting practice of the 1950s as presented in this research. This study highlights the significance of drawing and photography as integral elements of his artistic process. It also delves into the artist’s different painting approaches and discusses their evolution, which culminated in the stylistic innovation that became Liu Kang’s signature for decades to come. The obtained data may assist art historians and conservators in authenticity and attribution studies, evaluating the condition of artworks and designing conservation strategies. Moreover, this study contributes to the growing body of knowledge about twentieth-century artists’ materials, which are characterised by the complex mixtures of inorganic and organic compounds. It also provides information about the availability of art materials in Singapore in the 1950s.