Exclusion from Social Relations in Later Life: Micro- and Macro-Level Patterns and Correlations in a European Perspective

Abstract

Older adults face particular risks of exclusion from social relationships (ESR) and are especially vulnerable to its consequences. However, research so far has been limited to specific dimensions, countries, and time points. In this paper, we examine the prevalence and micro- and macro-level predictors of ESR among older adults (60+) using two waves of data obtained four years apart across 14 European countries in the Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe (SHARE). We consider four ESR indicators (household composition, social networks, social opportunities, and loneliness) and link them to micro-level (age, gender, socioeconomic factors, health, and family responsibilities) and national macro-level factors (social expenditures, unmet health needs, individualism, social trust, and institutional trust). Findings reveal a northwest to southeast gradient, with the lowest rates of ESR in the stronger welfare states of Northwest Europe. The high rates of ESR in the southeast are especially pronounced among women. Predictably, higher age and fewer personal resources (socioeconomic factors and health) increase the risk of all ESR dimensions for both genders. Macro-level factors show significant associations with ESR beyond the effect of micro-level factors, suggesting that national policies and cultural and structural characteristics may play a role in fostering sociability and connectivity and, thus, reduce the risk of ESR in later life.

Intersectional inequalities in loneliness among older adults before and during the early phase of the COVID-19 pandemic: A total population survey in the Swedish eldercare setting

“…The overall patterns in the prevalence of loneliness appeared entrenched already before the emergence of the pandemic, and increased slightly but ubiquitously during its early phase, and specifically by residential setting. This differential impact, rooted in underlying social inequalities, expands previous findings of increased inequalities in loneliness by gender ( Hansen et al, 2021 ) and in social contacts by residential setting ( Freedman et al, 2021 ) during the pandemic. Taken together, it provides a complex picture of social vulnerability and resiliency among older adults, which stands in stark contrast to common depictions and empirical approaches treating older adults as one homogenous vulnerable group.…”

“…While higher loneliness with increasing age has indeed been reported among the oldest old ( Niedzwiedz et al, 2016 ), a recent meta-analysis showed similar levels of loneliness among older and younger older adults ( Chawla et al, 2021 ). Gender inequalities in loneliness among older adults display a complex and context-dependent pattern, with similar or higher levels of loneliness, as well as greater impact of the COVID-19 pandemic ( Hansen et al, 2021 ), among older women compared to older men ( Cohen-Mansfield et al, 2016 ; Pinquart and Sorensen, 2001 ). Economic inequalities in loneliness, with greater loneliness among older adults with lower income or wealth ( Bosma et al, 2015 ; Niedzwiedz et al, 2016 ), have been hypothesized to reflect poorer opportunities to develop relationships during working age, the direct financial barrier to social activities, and indirect barriers due to income-related inequalities in health and functional limitations ( Niedzwiedz et al, 2016 ).…”

Loneliness among older adults in Europe: The relative importance of early and later life conditions

“…In addition to these individual characteristics, country-specific characteristics also explain higher risks of loneliness. Macro-level demographic and economic factors, inequalities, cultural norms and values, levels of safety, and the existence and extent of public and social policies are among the country-specific characteristics that were found to be associated with social isolation and loneliness [ 32 , 33 , 83 – 85 ].…”

Tackling social disconnection: An umbrella review of RCT-based interventions targeting social isolation and loneliness

“…In contrast, loneliness ("feeling alone") is a subjective experience and refers to the negative feeling caused by a discrepancy between actual and desired social connection and social contact [5,11,12]. The prevalence of social isolation varies across its speci c indicators, but generally increases in later life [13]. For instance, over one-third of adults aged 65 and above, and more than half of those aged over 80, live alone in Norway and several other Western countries [13,14].…”

“…The prevalence of social isolation varies across its speci c indicators, but generally increases in later life [13]. For instance, over one-third of adults aged 65 and above, and more than half of those aged over 80, live alone in Norway and several other Western countries [13,14]. Loneliness is also a widespread issue in Western countries, with approximately one-quarter of the adult population reporting that they "sometimes" or "often" feel lonely [15,16].…”