Explaining the black–white gap in cognitive test scores: Toward a theory of adverse impact.

Abstract

In understanding the causes of adverse impact, a key parameter is the Black-White difference in cognitive test scores. To advance theory on why Black-White cognitive ability/knowledge test score gaps exist, and on how these gaps develop over time, the current article proposes an inductive explanatory model derived from past empirical findings. According to this theoretical model, Black-White group mean differences in cognitive test scores arise from the following racially disparate conditions: family income, maternal education, maternal verbal ability/knowledge, learning materials in the home, parenting factors (maternal sensitivity, maternal warmth and acceptance, and safe physical environment), child birth order, and child birth weight. Results from a 5-wave longitudinal growth model estimated on children in the NICHD Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development from ages 4 through 15 years show significant Black-White cognitive test score gaps throughout early development that did not grow significantly over time (i.e., significant intercept differences, but not slope differences). Importantly, the racially disparate conditions listed above can account for the relation between race and cognitive test scores. We propose a parsimonious 3-Step Model that explains how cognitive test score gaps arise, in which race relates to maternal disadvantage, which in turn relates to parenting factors, which in turn relate to cognitive test scores. This model and results offer to fill a need for theory on the etiology of the Black-White ethnic group gap in cognitive test scores, and attempt to address a missing link in the theory of adverse impact.

Understanding subgroup differences with general mental ability tests in employment selection: Exploring socio‐cultural factors across inter‐generational groups

“…Although tests of GMA are highly predictive of training and job performance (Berry, Poortinga et al, ; Bertua et al, ; Hülsheger et al, ; Hunter, ; Hunter & Hunter, ; Salgado & Anderson, ; Salgado et al, ), considerable evidence supports their adverse impact against ethnic groups (Hartigan & Wigdor, ; Hough & Oswald, ; Outtz & Newman, ; Roth et al, ). Despite this evidence, few studies have explored the underlying reasons for this impact beyond race/ethnicity itself which has limited theory development (exceptions are Cottrell et al, as well as Outtz and Newman, ). Developing theory about group differences has been further constrained by confounding variables as race/ethnicity is highly related to societal and socio‐cultural variables.…”

“…Generational status incorporated a range of factors including social class, gender, education, socioeconomic status, age, and language. In addition, as income (Cottrell, Newman, & Roisman, ) and nutrition (Benton & Roberts, ; Bleichrodt & Born, ; and Wachs et al, ) may improve for immigrants in their new country, these can contribute to increases in their GMA over time. Within these factors, two are consistently evidenced as demonstrating the largest impact on GMA test score gaps between non‐immigrants and immigrants: education and language fluency.…”

“…For Black–White GMA test score differences with U.S. children specifically, Cottrell et al () found that these differences were reduced by the socio‐cultural factors of income and maternal education operating through maternal sensitivity, physical environment, and learning materials. In addition, Brooks‐Gunn, Klebanov, and Duncan () were able to eliminate differences in Black–White IQ by adjusting for economic and social differences in the lives of Black and White children.…”

Predictors of Infant and Toddler Black Boys’ Early Learning: Seizing Opportunities and Minimizing Risks

“…This study uses several frameworks and concepts about how early experiences of infant/toddler Black boys are linked to their later outcomes. They include the bio-ecological framework (Bronfenbrenner & Morris, 2007), the integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children (García Coll et al, 1996), and the concepts of toxic stress (Shonkoff et al, 2012) and adverse impact (Cottrell, Newman, & Roisman, 2015).…”

International comparison of group differences in general mental ability for immigrants versus non‐immigrants

“…Research has identified several factors that account for these GMA test score differences, such as educational quality for students (Rindermann & Thompson, ) and language skills for adults (de Meijer et al, ; te Nijenhuis & van der Flier, ). Other factors that may improve after immigration and contribute to GMA include income (Cottrell, Newman, & Roisman, ) and nutrition (Benton & Roberts, ; Bleichrodt & Born, ; Wachs et al, ). Despite the potential for improvements for immigrants in their new country, the impact of these factors on GMA will take time and are likely contingent on employment and economic success.…”