Extraordinary Multi-Organismal Interactions Involving Bacteriophages, Bacteria, Fungi, and Rotifers: Quadruple Microbial Trophic Network in Water Droplets

Abstract

Our observations of predatory fungi trapping rotifers in activated sludge and laboratory culture allowed us to discover a complicated trophic network that includes predatory fungi armed with bacteria and bacteriophages and the rotifers they prey on. Such a network seems to be common in various habitats, although it remains mostly unknown due to its microscopic size. In this study, we isolated and identified fungi and bacteria from activated sludge. We also noticed abundant, virus-like particles in the environment. The fungus developed absorptive hyphae within the prey. The bacteria showed the ability to enter and exit from the hyphae (e.g., from the traps into the caught prey). Our observations indicate that the bacteria and the fungus share nutrients obtained from the rotifer. To narrow the range of bacterial strains isolated from the mycelium, the effects of bacteria supernatants and lysed bacteria were studied. Bacteria isolated from the fungus were capable of immobilizing the rotifer. The strongest negative effect on rotifer mobility was shown by a mixture of Bacillus sp. and Stenotrophomonas maltophilia. The involvement of bacteriophages in rotifer hunting was demonstrated based on molecular analyses and was discussed. The described case seems to be an extraordinary quadruple microbiological puzzle that has not been described and is still far from being understood.

Exodia phenomenon of foodborne Mycophages cocktails against chimeric strains of Candida albicans recovered from dairy chain ecosystems in Baghdad

“…Various complex networks reside among and within these denominators to share configured lifestyle behaviors. Because of these rebuilding and remixing machines strategies cascaded by the evolution of forbidden chimeric genes verification module from which resistance problems to different stressors and cross hardening even not encountered else causing programming to reemerge as biohazard terror 28,31 .…”

“…Justified and daring publications must put the segregation benefits for these now-needed weapons. Information about hygienic certification and the application of these nanobodies for therapy and decontamination strategies is still under warranty 31 .…”

The phycosphere and its role in algal biofuel production

“…However, through multi-organism interactions, there is a possibility for in-situ rotifer prevention. A study done by Turnau et al (2021) explored arming a predatory fungus, Stenotrophomonas maltophilia, with bacteria, Bacillus sp., to terminate rotifers within the sample (Turnau et al, 2021). While this research focused on fungal-bacterial interactions in predation maintenance, application into multi-culture algal ponds may prove fortuitous in large-scale biofuel production.…”

“…While this research focused on fungal-bacterial interactions in predation maintenance, application into multi-culture algal ponds may prove fortuitous in large-scale biofuel production. Turnau et al (2021) found that protection against rotifers was achieved in a quadruple microbial trophic interaction. Although this can be difficult to design, the payoffs to this research and design would greatly improve algal cultivation.…”

Should Bacteriophages Be Classified as Parasites or Predators?

“…Examples of tremendous roles of bacteriophages in the control of microbial communities in natural habitats include their action on water and soil bacteria to keep ecological equilibrium ( Srinivasiah et al 2008 ), their ability to mediate lateral transfer of bacterial genetic material, to modify bacterial cell metabolism, and – due to host cell lysis – to reallocate biochemical compounds originally present inside bacterial cells, thus contributing significantly to the circulation of matter in ecosystems ( Naureen et al 2020 ). They even participate in multi-organismal interactions in specific microbial trophic networks ( Turnau et al 2021 ). Properties of bacteriophages that make them able to affect bacterial communities have been employed to control and monitor wastewaters ( Barrios et al 2021 ; Liu et al 2021 ).…”