“…This study uses the Chicago Board Options Exchange's (CBOE) Volatility Index (VIX) as a measure of the United States (US) stock market's expectation of volatility. This index is commonly known as the "fear index" or "fear gauge" (Ding et al, 2021;Simon & Wiggins III, 2001;Whaley, 2000Whaley, , 2009, and has been used to study volatility transmission during previous crisis periods (Cheuathonghua et al, 2019;Rodriguez-Nieto & Mollick, 2020), as well as to measure the transmission of volatility between financial entities (Kang et al, 2019;Pan et al, 2019). One key contribution of this paper is that we establish how changes in correlation patterns between European banks and the VIX occurred during the GFC and COVID-19 periods.…”