Exudates and Animal Prey Characterize Slow Loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus, N. coucang and N. javanicus) Diet in Captivity and After Release into the Wild

Streicher, Ulrike; Wilson, A. R.; Collins, Rebecca L.; Nekaris, K. Anne-Isola

doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-4511-1_19

Cited by 51 publications

(23 citation statements)

References 15 publications

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“…Zoos feeding dead mice, dead 1 d old chickens, mealworms and fruits to N. pygmaeus became common practice. Recent studies by Wiens (2002), Nekaris et al (2010) and Streicher et al (2013) suggest that this lorisid species is actually an exudativore. Their wild diet has been reported to reflect the following proportions: gum (30%), other exudates such as sap and nectar (30%) and insects (40%) (Streicher 2009, Nekaris & Bearder 2011.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 87%

“…Even if this result is not a surprise, gouging is the main natural behaviour that is performed by exudate feeders in the wild and is actually relied on as the staple food item of their diet (Starr & Nekaris 2013). Providing opportunities for N. pygmaeus to gouge may also help decrease the dental problems that have been observed at many zoological institutions (Fuller et al 2013, Streicher et al 2013. Biting through the lignin and having teeth in contact with the structural carbohydrates that occur naturally within gum may be favourable for the condition of their teeth, analogous to flossing for humans.…”

Section: Feedingmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Biting through the lignin and having teeth in contact with the structural carbohydrates that occur naturally within gum may be favourable for the condition of their teeth, analogous to flossing for humans. For institutions that rely on free deliveries from supermarkets to feed their animals and have no choice but to feed fruit, providing treegum every day could help to offset the diets high in soft, sugary foods (Streicher et al 2013). Gum can be provided occasionally and has been shown to act as a source of enrichment, providing physiological benefits by increasing health, as well as reducing stereotypic behaviours (Huber & Lewis 2011).…”

Section: Feedingmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Unrefined gum from wild species of trees is said to contain an important amount of calcium, which may be important to balance out the high phosphorous concentration found within the invertebrates that they ingest (Charles-Dominique 1977, Power 2010. Lorises have been recorded feeding from a variety of tree species nightly, specifically Sapindaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fabaceae, Anarcdiaceae and Burseraceae (Tan & Drake 2001, Nekaris et al 2010, Streicher et al 2013. Their lower canines and incisors (tooth comb) are specialized and used in conjunction with their tusks (specialized procumbent caniniform premolars), which are used to gouge holes in tree bark (Kubota & Iwamoto 1967, Nekaris et al 2010.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Commonly reported health problems include obesity, kidney problems, bone disorders and dental diseases (Müller et al 1985, Rasmussen 1986, Ratajszczak 1998, Fitch-Snyder et al 2001, Fuller et al 2014. It has been hypothesised that diets high in sugar and with minimal gouging opportunities promote dental problems and obesity (Streicher et al 2013). There is strong support that the captive diet is linked to health problems and diminished longevity in captive N. pygmaeus (Fuller et al 2014).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Pygmy slow loris Nycticebus pygmaeus—natural diet replication in captivity

Cabana¹,

Plowman²

2014

Endang. Species. Res.

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In captivity, the pygmy slow loris Nycticebus pygmaeus population worldwide suffers from poor reproduction, dental diseases, facial abscesses and various other health problems which, cumulatively, mean that the population is far from self-sustaining. The diet recommendations are anecdotal at best, and improvements are urgently needed for this vulnerable species. New evidence suggests that wild N. pygmaeus are primarily exudativores, and consume nectar and gum daily from a variety of tropical plant species, along with a large variety of insects. The typical diet in captivity contains fruit, a concentrated pellet, some insects and occasionally gum as enrichment. Our aims were to compare the behavioural activity budget of 1 male N. pygmaeus at Paignton Zoo on his original diet, on the same diet with added nectar and on an evidence-based naturalistic diet of mainly gum and nectar. We also investigated the nutrient intake of 2 males when given these diets. Behavioural observations were made overnight using night-vision cameras for 15, 10 and 11 d for each diet, respectively. Abnormal (generalised linear mixed model, GLMM χ 2 (1, 2) = 8.673, p = 0.013), travelling (GLMM χ 2 (1, 2) = 6.107, p = 0.047) and feeding (GLMM χ 2 (1, 2) = 79.679, p = 0.0001) behaviours all varied significantly between diets. In the behavioural study, the addition of gum, nectar and insects and the removal of fruit expanded and diversified the loris' activity budget and reduced the extent to which abnormal behaviour patterns were displayed. The intake study showed that both lorises consumed more when fed the naturalistic diet, suggesting they found it more palatable. Evidence of diet change suggests that a naturalistic approach to feeding N. pygmaeus enhances its welfare.KEY WORDS: Loris · Diets · Evidence-based husbandry · Gum · Nectar · Exudativore Resale or republication not permitted without written consent of the publisher Contribution to the Theme Section 'Conservation and ecology of slow lorises'FREE REE ACCESS CCESS

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Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 87%

Section: Feedingmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Feedingmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

See 3 more Smart Citations

Pygmy slow loris Nycticebus pygmaeus—natural diet replication in captivity

Cabana¹,

Plowman²

2014

Endang. Species. Res.

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Obligate exudativory characterizes the diet of the pygmy slow loris Nycticebus pygmaeus

Starr

Nekaris

2013

American J Primatol

140

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Few primate species are known to excavate plant sources to procure exudates and other foods via active gouging. It is now apparent that slow lorises belong to this rare guild of obligate exudativorous primates. We investigate the diet of the pygmy loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus) in a mixed deciduous forest in the Seima Protection Forest, Eastern Cambodia, and attempted to determine the importance of this resource in their diet. Feeding behaviors of six females and seven males were observed using radio-tracking to facilitate follows, and nine fecal samples were collected in February-May and January-March in 2008 and 2009 respectively. We observed 168 feeding bouts, during which the animals ate exudates (76); fruits (33); arthropods (27); flower parts (21); fungi (3); parts of bamboo culms (7); and reptiles (1). We filmed 19 bouts of exudativory, and observed animals consuming exudates in an orthograde posture, or standing quadrupedally over the exudate source. Pygmy lorises also gouged bamboo to collect lichen and fungi, or broke open dead culms to access invertebrates. Feeding occurred on terminal tree branches (24), tree trunks (21), bamboo (13), the middle of branches (7), and the undergrowth (1). The fecal samples contained plant parts, small-sized arthropods (primarily Coleoptera and Lepidoptera), reptile scales, animal bones, and animal hairs. Pygmy slow lorises are morphologically specialized for processing and digesting exudates, displaying small body sizes, specialized dentitions, elongated, and narrow tongues, large caecums, short duodenums, expanded volar pads, and modified hindlimbs. These features, combined with the prevalence of exudates in their diet across seasons, and ill health when exudates are missing from their diet in captivity, points to this species being an obligate exudativore.

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Diets high in fruits and low in gum exudates promote the occurrence and development of dental disease in pygmy slow loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus)

Cabana

Nekaris

2015

Zoo Biology

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Asian slow lorises are found in zoos and rescue centres worldwide with Nycticebus pygmaeus, the pygmy slow loris, boasting the largest population in captivity. Diet are reportedly high in fruit and concentrates and low in insects and exudates. Wild feeding studies place insects, nectar, and gums as the most important diet components. Captive populations also show high incidences of health afflictions, many of which may be caused by nutrition. Our study, aims at identifying a causative agent within the diets of N. pygmaeus in regards to diseases prominent within captive populations. We sent out 55 diet and health questionnaires to institutions worldwide. Returned diets were nutritionally analyzed. Nutrient values and proportions of each ingredient were used in a principle components analysis. Resulting factors were used as variables in a binary logistic regression (BLR), with dental disease as the dependent variable. 39 questionnaires were returned with a total of 47 diets. 20 (51.7%) institutions reported the presence of diseases with dental issues being prominent. Factors that were significant in the principle components analysis included gum, nectar, protein, acid detergent fibre, calcium, ash, phosphorus, potassium, Ca:P, magnesium, vitamin D, and energy. Gum was the only significant predictor in the BLR. Lastly, a chi square test for association was performed with the presence of dental disease as the dependent variable and the amount of fruit in the diet. The combination of high fruits and little to no gum promotes the occurrence of dental diseases. Current captive diets do not reflect the evolutionary adaptations of Nycticebus primates. Zoo Biol. 34:547–553, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

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Exudates and Animal Prey Characterize Slow Loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus, N. coucang and N. javanicus) Diet in Captivity and After Release into the Wild

Cited by 51 publications

References 15 publications

Pygmy slow loris Nycticebus pygmaeus—natural diet replication in captivity

Pygmy slow loris Nycticebus pygmaeus—natural diet replication in captivity

Obligate exudativory characterizes the diet of the pygmy slow loris Nycticebus pygmaeus

Diets high in fruits and low in gum exudates promote the occurrence and development of dental disease in pygmy slow loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus)

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