Fate and Uptake of Pharmaceuticals in Soil–Earthworm Systems

Carter, Laura J.; Garman, Catherine D.; Ryan, James A.; Dowle, Adam; Bergström, Edmund T.; Thomas‐Oates, Jane; Boxall, Alistair B.A.

doi:10.1021/es500567w

Cited by 103 publications

(69 citation statements)

References 60 publications

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“…In dry areas of South America, treated or poorly treated effluents are commonly used for irrigation; for example, primarily treated sewage effluents are used for irrigation in Mendoza City (Argentina) [86]. APIcontaminated water used for irrigation has led to concerns related to uptake in plants and soil organisms [87,88], as well as potential for development and transfer of resistance genes in soil-based pathogens [89]. Septage collected from septic systems is often disposed of on open land or agricultural fields [68].…”

Section: (Iii) Landmentioning

confidence: 99%

Potential ecological footprints of active pharmaceutical ingredients: an examination of risk factors in low-, middle- and high-income countries

Kookana

Williams

Boxall

et al. 2014

Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B

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140

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Active pharmaceutical ingredients (APIs) can enter the natural environment during manufacture, use and/or disposal, and consequently public concern about their potential adverse impacts in the environment is growing. Despite the bulk of the human population living in Asia and Africa (mostly in low- or middle-income countries), limited work relating to research, development and regulations on APIs in the environment have so far been conducted in these regions. Also, the API manufacturing sector is gradually shifting to countries with lower production costs. This paper focuses mainly on APIs for human consumption and highlights key differences between the low-, middle- and high-income countries, covering factors such as population and demographics, manufacture, prescriptions, treatment, disposal and reuse of waste and wastewater. The striking differences in populations (both human and animal), urbanization, sewer connectivity and other factors have revealed that the environmental compartments receiving the bulk of API residues differ markedly between low- and high-income countries. High sewer connectivity in developed countries allows capture and treatment of the waste stream (point-source). However, in many low- or middle-income countries, sewerage connectivity is generally low and in some areas waste is collected predominantly in septic systems. Consequently, the diffuse-source impact, such as on groundwater from leaking septic systems or on land due to disposal of raw sewage or septage, may be of greater concern. A screening level assessment of potential burdens of APIs in urban and rural environments of countries representing low- and middle-income as well as high-income has been made. Implications for ecological risks of APIs used by humans in lower income countries are discussed.

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Section: (Iii) Landmentioning

confidence: 99%

Potential ecological footprints of active pharmaceutical ingredients: an examination of risk factors in low-, middle- and high-income countries

Kookana

Williams

Boxall

et al. 2014

Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B

Self Cite

140

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“…Data from Carter et al, (2014) 17 also reveals that the minimized design accurately predicts BCFs for the earthworm species, E. fetida (SI Figure 1). This is interesting because the approach was originally designed for aquatic BCF calculation but results presented here demonstrate that it is also probably suitable for terrestrial BCF calculations.…”

Section: ■ Resultsmentioning

confidence: 89%

Minimised Bioconcentration Tests: A Useful Tool for Assessing Chemical Uptake into Terrestrial and Aquatic Invertebrates?

Carter

Ashauer

Ryan

et al. 2014

Environ. Sci. Technol.

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Current guidelines for determining bioconcentration factors (BCF) and uptake and depuration rate constants require labor intensive studies with large numbers of organisms. A minimized approach has recently been proposed for fish BCF studies but its applicability to other taxonomic groups is unknown. In this study, we therefore evaluate the use of the minimized approach for estimating BCF and uptake and depuration rate constants for chemicals in aquatic and terrestrial invertebrates. Data from a range of previous BCF studies were resampled to calculate BCFs and rate constants using the minimized method. The resulting values were then compared to values obtained using full study designs. Results demonstrated a good correlation for uptake rate constants, a poor correlation for depuration rate constants and a very good correlation between the BCFs obtained using the traditional and minimized approach for a variety of organic compounds. The minimized approach therefore has merit in deriving bioconcentration factors and uptake rate constants but may not be appropriate for deriving depuration rate constants for use in, for example, toxico-kinetic toxico-dynamic modeling. The approach uses up to 70% fewer organisms, requires less labor and has lower analytical costs. The minimized design therefore could be a valuable approach for running large multifactorial studies to assess bioconcentration of the plethora of chemicals that occur in the environment into the many taxonomic groups that occur in the environment. The approach should therefore help in accelerating the development of our understanding of factors and processes affecting uptake of chemicals into organisms in the environment.

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“…The mean fluoxetine concentration in earthworms (537.1 ± 47.3 μg/g) was 0.94 times the mean concentration measured in soil (572.7 ± 9.4 μg/g). The biota–sediment accumulation factor estimated by Carter et al using radiolabeled fluoxetine and earthworms that had been given 24 h to depurate their gut was 0.3. Our value of 0.94 is of the same order of magnitude as that of Carter et al and would be closer had we depurated the earthworms prior to extraction.…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 95%

“…The biota–sediment accumulation factor estimated by Carter et al using radiolabeled fluoxetine and earthworms that had been given 24 h to depurate their gut was 0.3. Our value of 0.94 is of the same order of magnitude as that of Carter et al and would be closer had we depurated the earthworms prior to extraction. Earthworms were not given a chance to depurate because the aim of the PBETs was to mimic how fluoxetine would be encountered by a wild bird, which in reality would consume both the worm and associated soil.…”

Section: Resultsmentioning

confidence: 95%

An in vitro method for determining the bioaccessibility of pharmaceuticals in wildlife

Bean¹,

Arnold

Lane

et al. 2016

Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry

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Wildlife can be exposed to human pharmaceuticals via prey that have accumulated the compounds from wastewater, surface water, sediment, and soil. One factor affecting internal absorption of pharmaceuticals is bioaccessibility, the proportion of the compound that enters solution in the gastrointestinal tract. Currently, the bioaccessibility of most pharmaceuticals in prey remains unknown for most wildlife species. The authors evaluated the potential of a 2-compartment in vitro gastrointestinal tract model to compare the bioaccessibility of the antidepressant fluoxetine from invertebrate prey for birds and mammals. Samples of gizzard (or stomach) and intestinal-phase digestive juices were obtained from the in vitro models along with the residual solid material. High-performance liquid chromatographic analysis revealed that the bioaccessibility of fluoxetine in the avian in vitro models was statistically significantly lower than that in the mammalian models as a percentage of what was recovered; however, there were no statistically or biologically significant interspecies difference in terms of the amount recovered per gram of "food" inserted at the start of the simulation. This in vitro model provides a useful method of comparing the bioaccessibility of pharmaceuticals in different prey for species with different gastrointestinal conditions. There is merit for ecological risk assessments in further developing this in vitro approach to improve estimates of internal exposure for organics. Environ Toxicol Chem 2016;35:2349-2357. © 2016 SETAC.

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Fate and Uptake of Pharmaceuticals in Soil–Earthworm Systems

Cited by 103 publications

References 60 publications

Potential ecological footprints of active pharmaceutical ingredients: an examination of risk factors in low-, middle- and high-income countries

Potential ecological footprints of active pharmaceutical ingredients: an examination of risk factors in low-, middle- and high-income countries

Minimised Bioconcentration Tests: A Useful Tool for Assessing Chemical Uptake into Terrestrial and Aquatic Invertebrates?

An in vitro method for determining the bioaccessibility of pharmaceuticals in wildlife

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