“…However, the existing conventional Mobility-on-Demand (MoD) systems (US Department of Transport, 2020) suffer from multiple operational challenges. The rebalancing problem when vehicles end up clustered at a certain location is one of these challenges (Santos & de Almeida Correia, 2019), (Kek, Cheu, Meng, & Fung, 2009), (Fagnant & Kockelman, 2014), (Lu, Correia, Zhao, Liang, & Lv, 2021), (Jorge, Correia, & Barnhart, 2014). A promising solution to this problem, which is nowadays getting much attention in research, could be the use of automated or autonomous vehicles (AVs) (SAE-level 4 and 5 (SAE International, 2014)).…”