Flobots: Robotic flowers for bee behaviour experiments

Abstract

Studies of pollinator foraging behaviour often require artificial flowers that can refill themselves, allowing pollinators to forage for long periods of time under experimental conditions. Here I describe a design for inexpensive flowers that can refill themselves upon demand and that are easy enough to set up and clean that they can be used in arrays of 30 or more flowers. I also summarize of a variety of artificial flower designs developed by other researchers.

A wireless, user-friendly, and unattended robotic flower system to assess pollinator foraging behaviour

“…In the past, researchers often used simplified devices to perform manipulative research, thus being able to address different biological questions (e.g., Goulson & Cory, 1993; Gumbert, 2000; Real, 1981). Although artificial flowers have been proposed as an efficient way to disentangle factors affecting pollinators behaviour, needless to say, artificial flower systems of any kind also come with limitations (Essenberg, 2015). In these devices, mimicking nature is restricted to a specific set of characteristics and a robotic flower field is of course not equal to a natural system, in which countless biotic and abiotic factors are at play.…”

“…Robotic flowers, which have mechanical features and can function without the requirement of human intervention, are regarded as a subcategory of artificial flowers, covering all experimental systems made to resemble real flowers in a certain property and/or to a certain degree. In the past years various robotic flower systems have been constructed with many different mechanisms of reward delivery (for an overview, see Essenberg, 2015). Although systems have been made to use in non-nectar rewarding (e.g., Switzer et al, 2019), most robotic flowers work with nectar, which is the main reward plants offer their mutualistic counterparts (Nicolson & Thornburg, 2007).…”

“…Although systems have been made to use in non-nectar rewarding (e.g., Switzer et al, 2019), most robotic flowers work with nectar, which is the main reward plants offer their mutualistic counterparts (Nicolson & Thornburg, 2007). Nectar can be delivered in continuous (e.g., Ings & Chittka, 2008; Makino & Sakai, 2007; Moffatt, 2001; Ohashi et al, 2010; Paldi et al, 2003; Thomson et al, 2012) or discrete doses (e.g., Cnaani et al, 2006; Essenberg, 2015; Greggers & Menzel, 1993; Keasar, 2000; Nachev & Winter, 2012; Sokolowski & Abramson, 2010). The ability to automatically detect a floral visitor was also implemented in some systems, using an infrared detection system (e.g., Greggers & Menzel, 1993; Keasar, 2000; Kuusela & Lämsä, 2016; Nachev & Winter, 2012).…”

A low‐cost, computer‐controlled robotic flower system for behavioral experiments

“…According to Essenberg (), the first automatic electronic flowers were developed in the 1970s (Grossmann ; Hartling and Plowright ). Subsequently, various systems have been developed to provide sugar solution either in continuous fashion (e.g., Leadbeater and Chittka ; Ohashi et al.…”

“…According to Essenberg (2015), the first automatic electronic flowers were developed in the 1970s (Grossmann 1973;Hartling and Plowright 1979). Subsequently, various systems have been developed to provide sugar solution either in continuous fashion (e.g., Leadbeater and Chittka 2008;Ohashi et al 2010) or in discrete doses, such as designs using an electromagnet (e.g., Keasar 2000;Cnaani et al 2006;Lihoreau et al 2010).…”