Flow of Economic Benefits From Coral Reefs in a Multi-Use Caribbean Marine Protected Area Using Network Theory

Abstract

Adaptation to changes in the delivery of ecosystem services while maintaining resilience of natural systems is one of the main challenges faced by multi-use marine protected areas (MPAs). To overcome this, it is crucial to improve our understanding of interdependencies among resource users and ecosystems. In this study we used networks to model the socio-ecological system of a multi-use MPA in the southern Caribbean. Using a mixed-method approach, we built a socio ecological network (SEN) from the flow of economic benefits that stakeholders obtain from coral reefs in Los Roques National Park. We specifically looked at how these benefits are distributed among stakeholder groups and how the structure and other network properties can inform management. For this, four networks (simple, weighted, directed and directed-weighted) were built from 125 nodes representing three services and six stakeholder groups, linked through 475 edges. The SEN structure indicated an open resource use pattern with reduced social capital, suggesting that community-based management could be challenging. Only 31% of the benefits from ecosystem services stay within the SEN. Regulation services, derived from the coral reef framework were the most important in terms of maintaining the flow of benefits through the SEN; however, most benefits depended on provisioning services. This approach, based on network theory allowed identification of inequalities in the access to benefits among groups, externalities in benefits derived from fisheries and trade-offs between provisioning and regulation services. Our results suggest that Los Roques might be falling into a socio-ecological trap. Improving access to benefits and increasing trust need be prioritized. Low-cost management intervention can help internalize financial benefits and reduce trade-offs affecting more vulnerable stakeholder groups. However, these would require changes in governance and institutions at the executive level.

Distribution, abundance, and health indicators of the critically endangered coral species Acropora cervicornis in Los Roques National Park, 2014

“…Overall local and anthropogenic threats might be minimized due to limited access to the area, its MPA status, and low human populations. However, the latest evidence of the MPA's degradation due to parrotfish and other herbivores overfishing, changes in governance, and inadequate surveillance and law enforcement poses an imminent threat (Croquer et al 2016;Agudo-Adriani et al 2019;Cavada-Blanco et al 2020;Cavada-Blanco et al 2021). Thus, we suggest the urgent need to revise the MPA´s zoning and regulations, established in 1991, to protect these dense and extensive patches of Acropora cervicornis.…”

“…Different studies have shown that Los Roques harbours healthy populations of other key and vulnerable scleractinian species such as Acropora palmata and Dendrogyra cylindrus (Zubillaga et al 2005;Croquer et al 2016;Cavada-Blanco et al 2020;Cavada-Blanco et al 2021). Most likely because the archipelago remains outside the main impact route of hurricanes and has not been subjected to coastal development (Zubillaga et al 2005;).…”

“…The MPA zoning encompasses nine different use zones, including four coastalmarine habitats, making Los Roques a multi-use MPA (Croquer et al 2016). The MPA zones range from high protection (i.e., authorized scientific research or managed non-extractive activities) to low protection (i.e., artisanal fishing and recreational activities (Croquer et al 2016;Cavada-Blanco et al 2021). According to this zoning, human activities are mostly concentrated within the northeast main island, (Gran Roque) and nearby cays (Figure 1).…”

Assessment of Stakeholder’s Perceptions of the Value of Coral Reef Ecosystem Services: The Case of Gili Matra Marine Tourism Park

“…Considering the nature of the GMMTP as a multi-user MPA, the interdependencies between the coral reef ecosystem and the resource users could unravel potential adaptation challenges to the community under fluctuating ES conditions [17,18]. Due to events such as the Lombok Major Earthquake in 2018 and the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, the GMMTP community has undergone profound lifestyle alterations, which were later reflected in their interactions with ES provisions.…”

“…Due to events such as the Lombok Major Earthquake in 2018 and the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, the GMMTP community has undergone profound lifestyle alterations, which were later reflected in their interactions with ES provisions. A follow-up assessment of coral reef services must be conducted to maintain ecological and social resilience as the implied goal under MPA establishment [9,18]. Some critiques stated that ES assessment often lacks insight into the social dimension, resulting in an incomplete portrayal of ES values.…”