Protected areas are intended to safeguard biodiversity in perpetuity, yet evidence suggests that widespread legal changes undermine protected area durability and efficacy. We documented these legal changes—protected area downgrading, downsizing, and degazettement (PADDD) events—in the United States and Amazonian countries and compiled available data globally. Governments of the United States and Amazonian countries enacted 269 and 440 PADDD events, respectively. Between 1892 and 2018, 73 countries enacted 3749 PADDD events, removing 519,857 square kilometers from protection and tempering regulations in an additional 1,659,972 square kilometers; 78% of events were enacted since 2000. Most PADDD events (62%) are associated with industrial-scale resource extraction and development, suggesting that PADDD may compromise biodiversity conservation objectives. Strategic policy responses are needed to address PADDD and sustain effective protected areas.

Venezuela is among the ten countries with the highest biodiversity in the world, both in the terrestrial and the marine environment. Due to its biogeographical position, Venezuelan marine flora and fauna are composed of species from very different marine bioregions such as the Caribbean and the Orinoco Delta. The ecosystems in the Caribbean have received considerable attention but now, due to the tremendous impact of human activities such as tourism, over-exploitation of marine resources, physical alteration, the oil industry, and pollution, these environments are under great risk and their biodiversity highly threatened. The most representative ecosystems of this region include sandy beaches, rocky shores, seagrass beds, coral reefs, soft bottom communities, and mangrove forests. The Orinoco Delta is a complex group of freshwater, estuarine, and marine ecosystems; the habitats are very diverse but poorly known. This paper summarizes the known, which is all of the information available in Venezuela about research into biodiversity, the different ecosystems and the knowledge that has become available in different types of publications, biological collections, the importance and extents of the Protected Areas as biodiversity reserves, and the legal institutional framework aimed at their protection and sustainable use. As the unknown, research priorities are proposed: a complete survey of the area, the completion of a species list, and an assessment of the health status of the main ecosystems on a broad national scale. This new information must be integrated and summarized in nationwide Geographic Information Systems (GIS) databases, accessible to the scientific community as well as to the management agencies. In the long term, a genetic inventory must be included in order to provide more detailed knowledge of the biological resources. Future projects at the local (Venezuela), regional (Southern Caribbean: Colombia, Venezuela, and the Netherlands Antilles), and global (South America) scales are recommended.KEYWORDS: Venezuela, marine biodiversity, conservation, protected areas, biological collections. RESUMENVenezuela se encuentra entre los primeros 10 países con la mayor biodiversidad en el mundo, tanto en el ambiente terrestre como en el marino. Dada su posición biogeográfica, la flora y fauna marina venezolana está compuesta por especies de biorregiones muy distintas como lo son el Caribe y el Delta del Orinoco. En el Caribe, los ecosistemas han recibido una atención considerable, sin embargo, debido al tremendo impacto de actividades humanas tales como el turismo, sobreexplotación de recursos marinos, alteración física, la industria petrolera y contaminación, entre otras, estos ambientes se encuentran bajo un gran riesgo y su biodiversidad está altamente amenazada. Los ecosistemas más representativos de esta región incluyen las playas arenosas, litorales rocosos, praderas de fanerógamas marinas, arrecifes coralinos, comunidades de fondos blandos y bosques de manglar. El Delta del Orinoco está constituid...

A d a S Á n c h e z -M e r c a d o , J o s É R . F e r r e r -P a r i s , E d g a r d Y e r e n a S h a e n a n d h o a G a r c Í a -R a n g e l and K a t h r y n M . R o d r Í g u e z -C l a r k Abstract Worldwide, many large mammals are threatened by poaching. However, understanding the causes of poaching is difficult when both hunter and hunted are elusive. One alternative is to apply regression models to opportunisticallycollected data but doing so without accounting for inherent biases may result in misleading conclusions. To demonstrate a straightforward method to account for such biases, and to guide further research on an elusive Vulnerable species, we visualized spatio-temporal poaching patterns in 844 Andean bear Tremarctos ornatus presence reports from the Cordillera de Mérida, Venezuela. To create maps of poaching risk we fitted two logistic regression models to a subset of 287 precisely georeferenced reports, one ignoring and one including spatial autocorrelation. Whereas the variance explained by both models was low, the second had better fit and predictive ability, and indicated that protected status had a significant positive effect on reducing poaching risk. Poaching risk increased at lower altitudes, where all indicators of human disturbance increased, although there was scant evidence that human-bear conflicts are a major direct trigger of poaching events. Because highest-risk areas were different from areas with most bear reports, we speculate that hunting may be driven by opportunistic encounters, rather than by purposeful searches in highquality bear habitat. Further research comparing risk maps with bear abundance models and data on poaching behaviour will be invaluable for clarifying poaching causes and for identifying management strategies.

Ecological traps occur when rapid environmental change makes organisms' habitat selection cues misleading and leads them to prefer poor quality habitats. Such traps can threaten the persistence of affected populations, so techniques to predict and map potential traps are of great conservation interest. Here we present a novel method for visualizing such traps and their uncertainty at large scales in a natural landscape, by combining a spatially explicit model of anthropogenic threats with one of occurrence probability. We began with poaching and occurrence data for Andean bears in the Cordillera de Mérida, Venezuela, and applied a partitioning procedure to generate 10 replicates of three partially independent data subsets. To the first subset, we fit a previously developed model of poaching probability, while we used the second and third subsets to fit, validate and select the best of four occurrence probability models. We then combined replicates of the poaching probability model with those of the best occurrence probability model to predict the spatial distribution and uncertainty of potential ecological traps. The best occurrence model predicted high probabilities in the center and in the northern parts of Cordillera de Mérida, with variation among replicates in the same areas. Predicted areas of occurrence covered 10 217 ± 2762 km 2 (24%) of the study area. However, more than a third of this area had a high probability of being an ecological trap. Furthermore, these potential ecological traps were next to or within the largest national parks and were surrounded by large areas with high occurrence probability and low poaching probability. Future research should focus on independent verification of potential occupancy and ecological traps, as well as on bear dispersal behavior. In areas where ecological traps are confirmed, targeted education and law enforcement will be most effective, while in confirmed safe harbor areas, increasing connectivity will be equally important. Our approach will be useful to identify potential ecological traps at the landscape level created by hunting and other human activities elsewhere in the world.

Conservationists recognize the value of protected area (PA) systems, with adequate coverage, ecological representation, connection, and management to deliver conservation benefits. Yet, governments primarily focus on coverage, disregarding quantification of the other criteria. While recent studies have assessed global representation and connectivity, they present limitations due to: (1) limited accuracy of the World Database of Protected Areas used, as governments may report areas that do not meet the IUCN or CBD PA definitions or omit subnational PAs, and (2) failure to include human impacts on the landscape in connectivity assessments. We constructed a validated PA database for Tropical Andean Countries (TAC; Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Perú, and Venezuela) and used the existing Protected-Connected-Land (ProtConn) indicator—incorporating the Global Human Footprint as a spatial proxy for human pressure—to evaluate TAC ecoregions’ representation and connectivity. We found that just 27% of ecoregions in the TAC are both protected and connected on more than 17% of their lands. As we included human pressure, we conclude that previous global ProtConn studies overestimate PA connectivity. Subnational PAs are promising for strengthening the representation of PA systems. If nations seek to meet Aichi target 11, or an upcoming post-2020 30% target, further efforts are needed to implement and report subnational conservation areas and appropriately evaluate PA systems.