Food and waterborne protozoan parasites: The African perspective

Abstract

Parasitic food-borne diseases, particularly those caused by the protozoan parasites Cryptosporidium , Giardia , Cyclospora cayetanensis and Entamoeba are increasingly becoming common and have received considerable attention in the last two decades. The ability of the transmission stages of the parasites to survive in the environment for prolonged periods, globalization of the food industry and changes in eating habits have contributed to the numbers of human infections. This systematic scoping review highlights these important water- and foodborne parasites in the African context, detailing the burden in African water sources, wastewater/effluents and fresh produce. A scoping review search targeting African countries was conducted in Medline, Web of science and African journals online as well as back referencing from included studies covering the period 1990 to January 2020. Out of 1134 studies, 68 were included in the review. The articles covered 17 out of 54 African countries. There were 39/68 studies reporting on water sources while the rest reported on fresh produce. Cryptosporidium prevalence ranged from 6 to 100% in surface water, 4 to 100% in tap water and up to 100% in wastewater and sludge. In fresh produce, Cryptosporidium was reported from five countries with prevalence of 0.8–75%. Giardia was reported in 47 out of 68 articles; prevalence ranged from 2.4% in surface water; 1% to over 70% in tap water; 28–100% in wastewater and 2% - 99% in fresh produce. Prevalence of Cyclospora cayetanensis was lower. Prevalence of Entamoeba was 78% in surface water; 100% in wastewater and up to 99% in fresh produce. This study finds that Africa is no exception to the risk presented by the subject parasites from water and/or food sources. Routine screening for these parasites particularly at household level and provision of adequate and safe drinking water would help to control the parasites.

Microeukaryotic gut parasites in wastewater treatment plants: diversity, activity, and removal

“…Our results are of particular interest for biomonitoring to evaluate wastewater treatment efficiency [ 22 , 63 , 71 ]. Especially in developing countries, the treatment of wastewater may be insufficient before re-introduction into the water system or re-use for agricultural purposes [ 6 , 17 , 59 , 72 ]. According to Cai et al [ 42 ], this applies, for instance, to around 80 % of sewage in India.…”

Concurrent Infection of Fascioliasis andTrypanosomosis and Associated Risk Factors in Local Zebu Breed Cattle of Western Ethiopia

“… 6 The parasite lives part of its life in aquatic snails that act as intermediate hosts and are found in and around wet areas, such as irrigation, water holes, and waterlogged areas. 7 …”

“…6 The parasite lives part of its life in aquatic snails that act as intermediate hosts and are found in and around wet areas, such as irrigation, water holes, and waterlogged areas. 7 African animal trypanosomosis (AAT) is a parasitic infection caused by an extracellular flagellate. Trypanosomes are unicellular protozoan parasites of the phylum Sarcomastigophora, order Kinetoplastida, family Trypanosomatidae, and genus Trypanosoma.…”

Wasting, Stunting, and Anemia in Angolan Children after Deworming with Albendazole or a Test-and-Treat Approach for Intestinal Parasites: Binary Longitudinal Models with Temporal Structure in a Four-Arm Randomized Trial

“…Our study included a particular age group not included in the eligible priority age group established by national guidelines to receive the low-cost single dose [ 17 ]. In African settings such as Bengo, with the high risk of multiple parasites playing an important role in the progression and the severity of parasite-related disease (and, thus, increasing malnutrition levels) [ 9 , 33 ], a TT approach to intestinal parasites (not only for STHs, but also for protozoa) should be considered [ 34 ].…”