From Waste Biomass to Hard Carbon Anodes: Predicting the Relationship between Biomass Processing Parameters and Performance of Hard Carbons in Sodium-Ion Batteries

Abstract

Sodium-ion batteries (SIBs) serve as the most promising next-generation commercial batteries besides lithium-ion batteries (LIBs). Hard carbon (HC) from renewable biomass resources is the most commonly used anode material in SIBs. In this contribution, we present a review of the latest progress in the conversion of waste biomass to HC materials, and highlight their application in SIBs. Specifically, the following topics are discussed in the review: (1) the mechanism of sodium-ion storage in HC, (2) the HC precursor’s sources, (3) the processing methods and conditions of the HCs production, (4) the impact of the biomass types and carbonization temperature on the carbon structure, and (5) the effect of various carbon structures on electrochemical performance. Data from various publications have been analyzed to uncover the relationship between the processing conditions of biomass and the resulting structure of the final HC product, as well as its electrochemical performance. Our results indicate the existence of an ideal temperature range (around 1200 to 1400 °C) that enhances the formation of graphitic domains in the final HC anode and reduces the formation of open pores from the biomass precursor. This results in HC anodes with high storage capacity (>300 mAh/g) and high initial coulombic efficiency (ICE) (>80%).

Use of Hydrothermal Carbonization to Improve the Performance of Biowaste‐Derived Hard Carbons in Sodium Ion‐Batteries

“…In comparison with pure biomasses, waste biomasses must be pretreated with water/acid or washed before or after their thermal treatment due to the significant content of inorganic impurities that vary among the precursor. This situation can negatively affect Na + storage leading to a growth in irreversible capacity and surface defects [52] …”

“…This situation can negatively affect Na + storage leading to a growth in irreversible capacity and surface defects. [52] Nonetheless, the impurities previously mentioned can impact positively on the carbonization process, along with an optimization of the morphology and microstructure of the hard carbon. [53] Ghimbeu et al [54] described that the presence of inorganic impurities, such as Na or K compounds, made a contribution to the formation of pores during the pyrolysis, increasing the specific surface area significantly and facilitating the electrolyte diffusion due to the open structure.…”

Hard Carbon and Sodium Rhodizonate Electrodes for Sodium-ion Batteries

“…Hard carbon anodes are still being studied today as they have a large variety of precursors, continued work is still researching waste biomasses and pyrolysis techniques and temperatures are still be explored. Specifically work by (Jin et al, 2023) that shows the pyrolysis temperature ranges between 1200-1400 °C are still being explored and are achieving capacities of over 300 mAh g -1 . Sodium rhodizonate is also still being explored through the development of free-standing electrodes focusing on binder-free electrodes to see improvements at high capacities of 231 mAh g -1 at 1,000 mA g -1 which offers the potential to be commercially viable in the future.…”

“…Sodium rhodizonate is also still being explored through the development of free-standing electrodes focusing on binder-free electrodes to see improvements at high capacities of 231 mAh g -1 at 1,000 mA g -1 which offers the potential to be commercially viable in the future. (Jin et al, 2023) 131…”