Frozen with fear: Conditioned suppression in a virtual reality model of human anxiety

Allcoat, Devon; Greville, W. James; Newton, Philip M.; Dymond, Simon

doi:10.1016/j.beproc.2015.06.011

Cited by 15 publications

(13 citation statements)

References 22 publications

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“…Although conditioned facilitation in humans has not before been demonstrated without also considering appetitive Pavlovian CS in the same statistical analysis, our findings are consistent with previous human work (Huys et al 2011;Geurts et al 2013;Garbusow et al 2014Garbusow et al , 2015 using similar tasks, and also with tasks using instructed instrumental avoidance responses (Paredes-Olay et al 2002;Nadler et al 2011;Lewis et al 2013). In contrast, we did not find a PIT effect on approach responses, i.e., no conditioned suppression, which is commonly reported in nonhuman PIT paradigms (Bouton 2007), in human paradigms requiring instructed instrumental responses (Di Giusto et al 1974;Punch et al 1976;Di Giusto and Bond 1978;Bond 1979;Allcoat et al 2015), and in a previous set of studies that did not separate the impact of appetitive and aversive Pavlovian CS (Huys et al 2011;Geurts et al 2013;Garbusow et al 2014Garbusow et al , 2015. The reason for discrepancy-i.e., the lack of conditioned suppression in both our experiments-remains unclear.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 92%

“…First, some early studies used tasks in which the Pavlovian value of a stimulus was not experimentally trained but acquired outside the experiment, i.e., words with positive (e.g., sweet, smart) or negative (e.g., bitter, stupid) connotations (Solarz 1960;Staats and Warren 1974). A second class of tasks used instrumental responses that were not learned but explicitly instructed, in order to demonstrate conditioned suppression, i.e., the inhibition of the instructed response by the presence of a CS previously coupled with an aversive primary punisher (Di Giusto et al 1974;Punch et al 1976;Di Giusto and Bond 1978;Bond 1979;Allcoat et al 2015). In a third class of tasks, both the Pavlovian and the instrumental contingencies are learned from experience, but the reinforcer value is acquired per instruction: participants learn to play a video game with instructed goal.…”

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confidence: 99%

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Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer after human threat conditioning

2019

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Threat conditioning is a common associative learning model with translational relevance. How threat-conditioned cues impact on formally unrelated instrumental behavior in humans is not well known. Such an effect is known as Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer (PIT). While PIT with aversive primary Pavlovian reinforcers is established in nonhuman animals, this is less clear in humans, where secondary reinforcers or instructed instrumental responses are most often investigated. We modified an existing human PIT procedure to include primary reinforcers. Participants first learned to obtain (or avoid losing) appetitive instrumental reinforcement (chocolate) by appropriate approach or avoidance actions. They either had to act (Go) or to withhold an action (NoGo), and in the Go condition either to approach a reward target to collect it or to withdraw from the reward target to avoid losing it. Then they learned to associate screen color (CS) with aversive Pavlovian reinforcement (electric shock US). In the transfer phase, we conducted the instrumental task during the presence of Pavlovian CS. In a first experiment, we show that the aversive Pavlovian CS+, compared to CS−, increased response rate in Go-Withdraw trials, i.e., induce conditioned facilitation of avoidance responses. This finding was confirmed in a second and independent experiment with an increased number of Go-Withdraw trials. Notably, we observed no appreciable conditioned suppression of approach responses. Effect size to distinguish CS+/CS− in Go-Withdraw trials was d = 0.42 in the confirmation sample. This would require n = 37 participants to demonstrate threat learning with 80% power. Thus, the effect size is on a practically useful scale although smaller than for model-based analysis of autonomic measures. In summary, our results indicate conditioned facilitation of formally unrelated instrumental avoidance behavior in humans and provide a novel behavioral threat learning measure that requires only key presses.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 92%

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confidence: 99%

Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer after human threat conditioning

2019

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“…This is especially relevant for VR, as it has been shown to be able to create authentic emotional reactions. Besides the positive experience of immersion, these also include fear or anxiety (Allcoat, Greville, Newton, & Dymond, 2015).…”

Section: Earlier Research Literaturementioning

confidence: 99%

Virtual Reality in Education: Focus on the Role of Emotions and Physiological Reactivity

Vesisenaho¹,

Juntunen²,

Häkkinen³

et al. 2019

JVWR

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Cognitive and emotional dimensions are often linked to each other in learning experiences. Moreover, emotions and engagement can lead to better outcomes at the cognitive level. Previous research has indicated that virtual reality (VR) provides a feeling of presence and immersion, which can trigger emotionally engaging learning situations. In this study, we explore the opportunities and challenges related to the use of VR in an educational context. The focus of this article is threefold: First, we explore interdisciplinary research literature related to the use of VR for educational purposes. Second, we introduce our VR pilot study in teacher education, applying three different kinds of VR applications. During the pilot study, we utilized physiological measurements, the self-assessed experience of emotional involvement (PANAS; Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) and students’ qualitative reporting on VR experiences. Third, we discuss the potential of brain imaging methods such as EEG measures for capturing learning, performance, and emotions in VR and offer pedagogical guidelines for the future design of VR environments.

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“…It is primarily characterized by reduced body motion and bradycardia (decreased heart rate) ( Glombiewski et al, 2015 ; Hagenaars, Oitzl & Roelofs, 2014 ), but has also been associated with changes in the sympathetic nervous system (e.g., increased arterial pressure, increased respiration, increased muscle tone) ( Roelofs, 2017 ). While freezing has been studied in animal research for decades, research on human freeze-like behavior is only recently emerging ( Allcoat et al, 2015 ; Azevedo et al, 2005 ; Facchinetti et al, 2006 ; Hermans et al, 2013 ; Mobbs et al, 2009 ). Evidently, humans also show a freeze-like response (reduced body sway and bradycardia) when exposed to threatening films ( Hagenaars, Roelofs & Stins, 2014 ).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Freeze-like responses to pain in humans and its modulation by social context

Karos

Meulders

Leyssen

et al. 2020

PeerJ

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Background Maladaptive defensive responses such as excessive avoidance behavior have received increasing attention as a main mechanism for the development and maintenance of chronic pain complaints. However, another defensive response which is commonly studied in animals as a proxy for fear is freezing behavior. No research to date has investigated human freezing behavior in the context of pain. In addition, there is an increasing realization that social context can affect pain-relevant processes such as pain experience and pain behavior but less is known about the effects of social context on defensive responses to pain. Hence, this study investigated freezing behavior and facial pain expression in the context of pain, and their modulation by social context. Methods Healthy, pain-free participants (N = 39) stood on a stabilometric force platform in a threatening or safe social context, which was manipulated using angry or happy facial stimuli. In some trials, an auditory cue (conditioned stimulus; CS) predicted the occurrence of painful electrocutaneous stimulus (unconditioned stimulus; pain-US). We assessed body sway (an index of freezing), heart rate, facial pain expression, self-reported pain intensity, unpleasantness, and pain-US expectancy during the CS and the context alone (no CS). Results The results were mixed. Neither the anticipation of pain, nor social context affected body sway. Heart rate and painful facial expression were reduced in the threatening social context at high anxiety levels. A threatening social context also elicited higher pain-US expectancy ratings. In sum, a threatening social context increases the expectation of pain, but reduces the facial expression of pain and lowers heart rate in highly anxious individuals.

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Frozen with fear: Conditioned suppression in a virtual reality model of human anxiety

Cited by 15 publications

References 22 publications

Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer after human threat conditioning

Pavlovian-to-instrumental transfer after human threat conditioning

Virtual Reality in Education: Focus on the Role of Emotions and Physiological Reactivity

Freeze-like responses to pain in humans and its modulation by social context

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