“…An anatomic projection from the VTA/SN to the PAGvl/DR is of potential importance because of several investigations reporting that the VTA and SN play a role in modulating pain and arterial blood pressure, two functions that are also regulated by the PAGvl/DR (Lovick, 1993; Bandler and Shipley, 1994; Behbehani, 1995; Bandler et al, 2000). For example, injections of γ‐aminobutyric acid (GABA) agonists or morphine into the SN have antinociceptive effects in anesthetized and conscious rats (Jurna et al, 1978; Barnes et al, 1979; Baumeister and Frye, 1986; Frye et al, 1986; Baumeister et al, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1993; Baumeister, 1991; Hebert et al, 1990). Injections of morphine or substance P into the VTA also elicit antinociception (Altier and Stewart, 1993, 1996, 1997, 1998; Morgan and Franklin, 1990).…”