Genetic and Environmental Influences on Adult Mental Health: Evidence for Gene-Environment Interplay as a Function of Maternal and Paternal Discipline and Affection

Abstract

Researchers have long theorized that genetic influence on mental health may differ as a function of environmental risk factors. One likely moderator of genetic and environmental influences on psychopathological symptoms is parenting behavior, as phenotypic research shows that negative aspects of parent-child relationships are associated with greater likelihood of mental illness in adulthood. The current study examined whether levels of reported parental discipline and affection experienced in childhood act as a trigger, or buffer, for adult mental health problems. Results from a nationwide twin sample suggest level of father's discipline and affection, as reported by now-adult twins, moderated genetic and environmental influences on internalizing symptoms in adulthood, such that heritability was greatest at the highest levels of discipline and affection. Father's affection also moderated the etiological influences on alcohol use problems, with greater heritability at the lowest levels of affection. No moderating effect was found for mothers. Findings suggest relationships with fathers in childhood can have long-lasting effects on the etiological influences on adult mental health outcomes.

Delta-beta coupling is associated with paternal caregiving behaviors during preschool

“…However, there is mixed evidence for the importance of maternal versus paternal behaviors in the development of children’s regulatory skills and internalizing problems. Numerous studies have suggested that fathers’ – but not mothers’ - harsh parenting during childhood is directly (Rinaldi & Howe, 2012) or indirectly associated on the development of internalizing symptoms in adulthood (South & Jarnecke, 2015). Reviews of the parenting literature have similarly suggested that fathers’ harsh parenting has a stronger effect on child outcomes than mothers’ harsh parenting (Loeber & Southamer-Loeber, 1986).…”

Father Love and Mother Love: Contributions of Parental Acceptance to Children's Psychological Adjustment

“…The selected studies represent a wide range of disciplinary, theoretical, and methodological approaches. Although most of the 127 studies treated parental acceptance as predictors of child outcome, several treated parental acceptance as a moderator of other determinants of child adjustment, such as parental control, romantic relationship, and/or peer influences (e.g., Harper et al, ; Lempers & Clark‐Lempers, ; Lowe & Dotterer, ; McKee et al, ; South & Jarnecke, ; Wang, Chen, & Li, ). Thirty studies used a longitudinal design (excluding studies using only one wave of longitudinal data sets), with varying time intervals between the collection of parenting‐related data and the assessment of child outcome (e.g., Liber et al, ; Stolz, Barber, & Olsen, ; Wang & Kenny, ; Zeiders, Updegraff, Umaña‐Taylor, McHal, Padilla, ).…”

Introduction to Interpersonal Acceptance-Rejection Theory (IPARTheory) and Evidence

“…Obviously, a substantial amount of variance in children's and adults' adjustment remains to be accounted for by other factors. No doubt a variety of cultural, behavioral, genetic, neurobiological, and other such factors are implicated in this variance (Reiss, 1997;Saudino, 1997;South & Jarnecke, 2015).…”

“…For example, South and Jarnecke (2015) reported from a nationwide study of twins that adults' remembrances of their fathers' discipline (punishment and behavioral control) and affection moderated genetic and environmental influences on internalizing symptoms of the adults. More specifically, heritability was greatest at the highest levels of paternal affection and discipline.…”