Governing Seeds in East Africa in the Face of Climate Change: Assessing Political and Social Outcomes

Abstract

Climate change is already negatively affecting Sub Saharan African agriculture. One of the most effective ways to adapt on farm is to switch crop varieties. This technological change depends on the policies and institutions involved in governing the seed systems on which farmers rely for access to suitable seeds. Whilst the need for seed systems to adapt and become more resilient is indisputable, the question of how this is best achieved is debated. The dominant seed system development pathway promoted by international development actors is characterized by formalization and commercialization of the seed sector. In order to assess political and social outcomes of this development agenda, we compare maize seed system development in Ethiopia, Malawi and Tanzania, combining policy analysis with quantitative analysis of farmers' seed use. We show that while the development policies promoted by international donors have similar objectives in the three countries, national policies and the seed systems farmers use differ substantially. National policies are shaped by political and historical factors and established in an interplay between state institutions, international donors and private input suppliers. Drawing on a new livelihood dataset, we show that in all three countries the formalization agenda is most visible in maize seed systems, with 25, 61, and 58% of the maize farmers planting improved maize varieties in the study sites in Ethiopia, Malawi and Tanzania, respectively. The inroads of improved maize, and particularly hybrid maize, in farmers' seed systems reflects these seeds high profitability for private seed companies. The tenuous use of improved varieties in crops such as sorghum reflects the limitation of the private sector-based seed system development approach in other crops and illustrates the need for public research and governance. Comparison of households cultivating improved maize with households cultivating local maize reveals that the first group is significantly wealthier and more food secure than the latter. This suggests that better-off households are likely to benefit first from the commercial formalization agenda. We argue that climate-smart seed policies and seed system development strategies must be sensitive to differences between farming systems and different groups of farmers if they are to deliver socially fair outcomes.

Commercial Release of Genetically Modified Crops in Africa: Interface Between Biosafety Regulatory Systems and Varietal Release Systems

“…This is not just specific to GM crops but also conventional hybrids because hybrid vigor decreases upon seed increase. Moreover, the dominant seed system development pathway promoted by international development is characterized by formalization and commercialization of the seed sector ( Westengen et al, 2019 ). The inroads of improved seeds, particularly hybrid seeds, in farmer-designed seed systems reflects that these seeds are highly profitable for private seed companies, which discourages saving seeds from the previous harvest.…”

Pearl Millet (Pennisetum glaucum [L. R. Rr.]) Varietal Loss and its Potential Impact on Smallholder Farmers in Northern Nigeria: A Review

“…From an analysis of literature, it appears that genetic erosion may be greatest in the case of cereals, followed by vegetables, fruits, and nuts, and food legumes (FAO, 2010). Therefore, several studies example Westengen, et al (2019) have highlighted that loss and erosion of varietal seeds are taking place at an alarming rate by broader categories of drivers particularly in the dry regions where degradation and destruction of the environment have resulted in the permanent loss of resources. In the absence of sustainable resource management, large-scale breakdown of the seed system in northern Nigeria is a "creeping vulnerability" to pearl millet in the medium to long term.…”

Genomic interventions for sustainable agriculture

“…The high average age of the predominant hybrids (13 years) in sub‐Saharan Africa has greatly hampered achieving potential yield gain in maize (Abate et al ., 2017). A comparative assessment of cultivar adoption among three African countries suggested Ethiopia as having the lowest percentage of farmers (25%) adopting improved maize cultivars, while Tanzania (58%) and Malawi (61%) had the higher proportions (Westengen et al ., 2019). Replacing older maize varieties with improved drought‐tolerant varieties is reported to enhance maize yields and reduce poverty by 13.3% and 12.9%, respectively, in rural Nigeria (Wossen et al ., 2017).…”