GPS Satellite Surveying

Abstract

CONTENTS 2.5.3 Mixed Model with Observation Equations I 30 2.5.4 Sequential Observation Equation Model I 32 2.5.5 Observation Equation Model with Observed Parameters I 32 2.5.6 Mixed Model with Conditions I 34 2.5.7 Observation Equation Model with Conditions I 35 2.6 Minimal and Inner Constraints I 37 2.7 Statistics in Least-Squares Adjustrnent I 42 2.7.1 Fundamental Test I 42 2.7.2 Testing Sequential Least Squares I 48 2.7.3 General Linear Hypothesis I 49 2.7.4 Ellipses as Confidence Regions I 52 2.7.5 Properties of Standard Ellipses I 56 2.7.6 Other Measures of Precision I 60 2.8 Reliability I 62 2.8.1 Redundancy Numbers I 62 2.8.2 Controlling Type-II Error for a Single Blunder I 64 2.8.3 Interna! Reliability I 67 2.8.4 Absorption I 67 2.8.5 External Reliability I 68 2.8.6 Correlated Cases I 69 2.9 Blunder Detection I 70 2.9.1 Tau Test I 71 2.9.2 Data Snooping I 71 2.9.3 Changing Weights of Observations I 72 2.10 Examples I 72 2.11 Kaiman Filtering I 77 RECURSIVE LEAST SQUARES 3.1 Static Parameter I 82 3.2 Static Parameters and Arbitrary Time-Varying Variables I 87 3.3 Dynamic Constraints I 96 3.4 Static Parametersand Dynamic Constraints I 112 3.5 Static Parameter, Parameters Subject to Dynamic Constraints, and Arbitrary Time-Varying Parameters I 125 4 GEODESY 4.1 International Terrestrial Reference Frame I 131 4.1.1 Polar Motion I 132 4.1.2 Tectonic Plate Motion I 133 4.1.3 Solid Earth Tides I 135 81 129 CONTENTS vii 4.1.4 Ocean Loading I 135 4.1.5 Relating of Nearly Aligned Frarnes I 136 4.1.6 ITRF and NAD83 I 138 4.2 International Celestial Reference System I 141 4.2.1 Transforming Terrestrial and Celestial Frames I 143 4.2.2 Time Systems I 149 4.3 Datum I 151 4.3.1 Geoid I 152 4.3.2 Ellipsoid of Rotation I 157 4.3.3 Geoid Undulations and Deftections of the Vertical I 158 4.3.4 Reductions to the Ellipsoid I 162 4.4 3D Geodetic Model I 166 4.4.1 Partial Derivatives I l 69 4.4.2 Repararneterization I 170 4.4.3 Implementation Considerations I 171 4.4.4 GPS Vector Networks I 174 4.4.5 Transforming Terrestrial and Vector Networks I 176 4.4.6 GPS Network Exarnples I 178 4.4.6.1

Compliance of low-cost, single-frequency GNSS receivers to standards consistent with ISO for control surveying

“…Also, it is important to perform GNSS observations at different sidereal times, with different satellite configurations, and different atmospheric conditions as the strongest defence against systematic errors and excessive random errors [30][31][32][33]. In addition, the recommendations include observation session length of 1 h/1 km and elevation mask above 5°.…”

Mobile mapping systems and spatial data collection strategies assessment in the identification of horizontal alignment of highways

“…Two different methods were used for the estimation of the trajectories. Using the raw GNSS data, a solution with Post Processing Kinematic (PKK) techniques was reached considering a close permanent station (Leick, 2015). The trajectory collected by the integrated GPS-IMU was directly estimated adopting a loosely coupled solution, but with a lower accuracy in the absolute positioning.…”

Location‐Based Services

“…GPS provides the simplest and most obvious form of LBS, allowing a user to determine position on the Earth's surface, in the precise coordinates of a formally specified location, to within meters and in some cases centimeters (Kennedy, 2002;Leick, 2004). The U.S.…”