“…9,10 GM-CSF, however, has since been demonstrated to also have a function in the central nervous system because GM-CSF can cross the blood-brain barrier 11,12 and both GM-CSF and its receptor are expressed by various brain cells. 13,14 GM-CSF has also been reported to have neuroprotective effects in animal models of Alzheimer disease, 15 Parkinson disease, 16 stroke, 14,17 spinal cord injury, [18][19][20] and stab wound-induced brain injury, 21 all of which bear pathological similarities to TBI. Furthermore, a post-mortem study of human brain tissue taken from acute TBI victims reported elevated levels of inflammatory cytokines including GM-CSF, 22 and the modulation of GM-CSF in animal studies has been shown to alter other inflammatory cytokines involved in TBI, including tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1 beta.…”