Graphene and the Immune System: A Romance of Many Dimensions

Abstract

Graphene-based materials (GBMs) are emerging as attractive materials for biomedical applications. Understanding how these materials are perceived by and interact with the immune system is of fundamental importance. Phagocytosis is a major mechanism deployed by the immune system to remove pathogens, particles, and cellular debris. Here, we discuss recent studies on the interactions of GBMs with different phagocytic cells, including macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells. The importance of assessing GBMs for endotoxin contamination is discussed as this may skew results. We also explore the role of the bio-corona for interactions of GBMs with immune cells. Finally, we highlight recent evidence for direct plasma membrane interactions of GBMs.

Skin irritation potential of graphene-based materials using a non-animal test

“…In fact, no interactions between materials and the MTT reagent were found. In addition, the application of GBMs as powder not only mimics a normal cutaneous exposure, but also avoids any interference due to a serum-dependent protein corona formation, commonly observed in in vitro experiments, in which GBMs are suspended in a culture medium containing serum, 36 at the basis of possible underestimation of the in vitro effects.…”

Few Layer Graphene Does Not Affect Cellular Homeostasis of Mouse Macrophages

“…To further explore the activation profile of the macrophages following their incubation with different concentrations of FLG (3,10,30, and 100 µg/mL) along with untreated and LPS-treated cells, we determined the titers of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6, TNFα, and IL-1β) in the culture supernatants by ELISA. As shown in Figure 5, IL-6 secretion slightly increases with FLG concentration, though not significantly when compared to untreated cells.…”

“…Isolated and characterized for the first time in 2004, graphene is an atomic monolayer of carbon atoms arranged into a hexagonal graphitic structure [1,2]. Since then, graphene and graphene-related materials (GRMs) have gained considerable attention in different fields and applications, especially in the biomedical domain [3,4]. Due to their unique properties, GRMs have found uses in water filtration systems, touch screens, medical sensors, energy storage capacitors and drug delivery [2].…”

Cytokine Profiling of Primary Human Macrophages Exposed to Endotoxin‐Free Graphene Oxide: Size‐Independent NLRP3 Inflammasome Activation

“…However, increasing production and use of GBMs also necessitates careful scrutiny of the impact of such materials on cells and tissues. Understanding the interactions of GBMs with the immune system is of particular importance . Phagocytic cells of the innate immune system represent the first line of cellular defense against foreign intrusion (microorganisms, particles) and also clear cell debris, thus playing an important role in tissue homeostasis.…”