Graphene as Cancer Theranostic Tool: Progress and Future Challenges

Abstract

Nowadays cancer remains one of the main causes of death in the world. Current diagnostic techniques need to be improved to provide earlier diagnosis and treatment. Traditional therapy approaches to cancer are limited by lack of specificity and systemic toxicity. In this scenario nanomaterials could be good allies to give more specific cancer treatment effectively reducing undesired side effects and giving at the same time accurate diagnosis and successful therapy. In this context, thanks to its unique physical and chemical properties, graphene, graphene oxide (GO) and reduced graphene (rGO) have recently attracted tremendous interest in biomedicine including cancer therapy.Herein we analyzed all studies presented in literature related to cancer fight using graphene and graphene-based conjugates. In this context, we aimed at the full picture of the state of the art providing new inputs for future strategies in the cancer theranostic by using of graphene.We found an impressive increasing interest in the material for cancer therapy and/or diagnosis. The majority of the works (73%) have been carried out on drug and gene delivery applications, following by photothermal therapy (32%), imaging (31%) and photodynamic therapy (10%). A 27% of the studies focused on theranostic applications. Part of the works here discussed contribute to the growth of the theranostic field covering the use of imaging (i.e. ultrasonography, positron electron tomography, and fluorescent imaging) combined to one or more therapeutic modalities. We found that the use of graphene in cancer theranostics is still in an early but rapidly growing stage of investigation. Any technology based on nanomaterials can significantly enhance their possibility to became the real revolution in medicine if combines diagnosis and therapy at the same time. We performed a comprehensive summary of the latest progress of graphene cancer fight and highlighted the future challenges and the innovative possible theranostic applications.

Radio-graphene in Theranostic Perspectives

“…The sp 2 -hybridized carbon atoms in a honeycombed network provide graphene with a large surface area (2630 m 2 g −1 ), outstanding thermal conductivity (~5000 Wm K −1 ), high mechanical strength (~1.1 TPa), and elasticity [8]. These properties of graphene have provided a stepping-stone for the development of nanocarriers for drug and gene delivery, biosensors, cell imaging, and phototherapy of cancer [9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20]. Doxorubicin loaded onto PEG-NGO conjugate is a primary example that utilizes the delocalized surface π-electrons in graphene to enhance the solubility of poorly soluble drugs [6].…”

“…A literature review shows that 73 % of the research works have been associated to drug and gene delivery applications; 32 % on photothermal therapy, 31 % on imaging, 10 % on photodynamic therapy, and 27 % of the studies on the theranostic applications [16]. Considering that in vivo delivery issue has been continuously emphasized as a main bottleneck in a drug development area, numerous trials using nanomaterials such as graphene could contribute to overcoming the in vivo targeted delivery issue.…”

GO/TiO2 Hybrid Nanoparticles as New Photosensitizers in Photodynamic Therapy of A375 Melanoma Cancer Cells

“…Reaction between the carboxylic groups of GO and hydroxyl groups of TiO 2 forms the basis for the creation of the GOT (14). For these reasons, GO NPs have been proposed for treatment of cancer (5). As an evidence, Fiorillo et al revealed that GO NPs could eradicate cancer stem cells, offering them as a new therapeutic strategy of cancer (22).…”

“…It is believed that this novel therapeutic modality has no harmful side-effects of chemotherapy and radiotherapy, including multi-drug resistance and effect on normal cells (4). Different types of PSs, such as hypericin, Protophorphyrin IX (PPIX), and benzoporphyrin derivatives, showed promising therapeutic effects in skin cancer and melanoma (5). However, these kinds of PSs have several limitations, including low solubility, instability, and short half-life in the tissue, suggesting a need for finding new potent PS (6).…”

“…As an evidence, Fiorillo et al revealed that GO NPs could eradicate cancer stem cells, offering them as a new therapeutic strategy of cancer (22). Moreover, when GO is co-loaded with a second anti-cancer agent, its anti-cancer properties might be improved (5). The mechanism of GOT action in photodynamic therapy approaches is through an increase in intracellular ROS and ultimately eliciting cell death and apoptosis (19).…”