Graphene-based biosensors for disease theranostics: Development, applications, and recent advancements

Abstract

Graphene, owing to its unique chemical structure and extraordinary chemical, electrical, thermal, optical, and mechanical properties, has opened up a new vista of applications, specifically as novel sensing platforms. The last decade has seen an extensive exploration of graphene and graphene-based materials either alone or modified with nanoparticles and polymers for the fabrication of nanoscale biosensors. These biosensors displayed excellent conductivity, high sensitivity, and selectivity, good accuracy, and precision, rapid detection with low detection limits as well as long-term stability. The unmatched properties of graphene and graphene-based materials have been applied for the detection of a number of chemical and biological molecules successfully for the diagnosis of a variety of diseases, pathogens, and biomarkers of the diseases. This review is aimed to cover the fabrication methods, functionalization techniques, and biomedical applications along with the recent advancements in the field of development of graphene-based biosensors. Recent clinical trials and patents as well as market trends and opportunities associated with graphene-based biosensors are also summarized. The application of graphene-based biosensors in the detection of SARS-CoV-2 causing COVID-19 is also reviewed.

Graphene-Based Field-Effect Transistor for Ultrasensitive Immunosensing of SARS-CoV-2 Spike S1 Antigen

“… 29 − 34 Due to their immense potential, graphene-based FETs are successfully employed for the development of various diagnostic platforms. 35 − 37 …”

“…Antibodies, enzymes, nucleic acid, aptamers, and molecularly imprinted polymers are some of the biomolecules used for the detection of target molecules. The advantage of antibodies over other biorecognition elements such as DNA and aptamers are lower cost, high affinity, highly stable, ease of functionalization, immobilization on different sensing elements such as graphene, and their capability to bind to a target, in different physiological conditions of clinical samples. , In addition to that, several advanced nanomaterials such as gold nanoparticles, iron oxide nanoparticles, organogels, and carbon nanotubes, − graphene have proven to be superior conductive materials to enhance the sensitivity of biosensors. , Graphene is a hexagonal two-dimensional (2D) material that has outperformed other nanomaterials in the construction of sensitive biosensors. − Due to their immense potential, graphene-based FETs are successfully employed for the development of various diagnostic platforms. − …”

Fluorescent Biosensors for the Detection of Viruses Using Graphene and Two-Dimensional Carbon Nanomaterials

“…Hydrogen bonding, van der Waals interactions, and π–π interactions are forms of non-covalent functionalization, whereas covalent bonding using 1-ethyl-3-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)carbodiimide hydrochloride/N-hydroxy sulfosuccinimide (EDC/NHS) chemistry and others has been utilized to attach a variety of recognition receptors onto the graphene biosensor surface ( Figure 2 ) [ 44 ]. Fluorescent-labeled single-stranded DNA (ssDNA) was adsorbed onto the GO molecule surface due to π–π stacking [ 12 , 45 , 46 , 47 ].…”

Device Processing Challenges for Miniaturized Sensing Systems Targeting Biological Fluids

“…Graphene, because of its unique physical and chemical properties, opens new opportunities for biodetection applications [ 97 , 98 ]. Graphene typically [ 98 ] supports the incorporation of different biological molecules and can serve as transducers of a biological signal.…”