Health and Welfare of Howler Monkeys in Captivity

Abstract

Among platyrrhines, howler monkeys are commonly traded illegally as pets in Central and South America, resulting in the high mortality of specimens. Many of these animals end up in long-term captive situations in zoos and rehabilitation centers, where adaptation may be diffi cult. Careful husbandry planning, taking into account the animals' behavioral, anatomical, and evolutionary characteristics, can greatly improve survivability. This chapter aims to provide information on howler monkey welfare in captivity, including enclosure design, environmental enrichment, feeding and nutrition, and diseases, based upon the biology and ecology of the species. Digestive physiology, behavioral ecology, and the social system of howler monkeys are major factors to take into account to provide adequate captive conditions. Aspects such as social integration, controlled temperature, indoor and outdoor enclosures, and hiding places should be met. The provision of foraging plants within the enclosure is ideal to stimulate natural feeding behavior. Behavioral enrichment measures need to be devised to prevent behavioral disorders. For successfully maintaining howler monkeys in captivity, animals should be trained to consume a wide variety of natural fi ber sources. Special attention should be placed on quantities of food sources rich in gluten and other allergenic proteins. Acute and chronic syndromes such as gastric dilatation, howler monkey wasting disease, and metabolic bone disease can be prevented when provided adequate diets. Many diseases may be acquired in the wild. However, other infectious diseases (viral, bacterial, and parasitic) are concomitant to stress and improper management. Very few studies have been carried out in captive howler populations to fully understand the husbandry and care requirements. Although howlers are very adaptive in nature and although it is a genus widely distributed throughout Central and South America, they are susceptible to many diseases that might threaten their population in the wild. Achieving a better knowledge of these factors in captivity may contribute to the development of healthy captive populations for future reintroductions to the wild.

The relationship between pinworm (Trypanoxyuris) infection and gut bacteria in wild black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra)

“…To increase our knowledge of the parasite‐gut bacteria system in wild primate hosts, we explored the relationship of GI parasite infection with the gut bacteria of free‐ranging black howler monkeys ( Alouatta pigra ), an endangered Mesoamerican primate species. Although A. pigra may harbor different GI parasites, such as trematodes that inhabit the bile ducts (Kowalzik et al, 2010; Pastor‐Nieto, 2015), it is also frequently infected by GI nematodes of the genus Trypanoxyuris (Nematoda: Oxyuridae), which are found in the large intestine (Hugot et al, 1996; Solórzano‐García & Pérez‐Ponce de León, 2017; Solórzano‐García et al, 2016). This feature makes Trypanoxyuris a suitable model to explore associations between parasite infection and gut bacterial community composition.…”

“…Although A. pigra may harbor different GI parasites, such as trematodes that inhabit the bile ducts (Kowalzik et al, 2010;Pastor-Nieto, 2015), it is also frequently infected by GI nematodes of the genus Trypanoxyuris (Nematoda: Oxyuridae), which are found in the large intestine (Hugot et al, 1996;Solórzano-García & Pérez-Ponce de León, 2017;Solórzano-García et al, 2016). This feature makes Trypanoxyuris a suitable model to explore associations between parasite infection and gut bacterial community composition.…”

A Retrospective Study on 1587 Exotic Pets Presented to The Small Animal Veterinary Hospital, University of Tehran

“…Monkeys were also most reported with the same condition (Table 2). It has been mentioned that some captive monkeys are provided with diets low either in calcium or vitamin D3 which results in MBD (19). On the other hand, hedgehogs were most reported with urinary problems in our study, which is known as one of the five most common health conditions in this creature (20).…”

The relative effects of reproductive condition, stress, and seasonality on patterns of parasitism in wild female black howler monkeys (Alouatta pigra)

“…C. biliophilus (Dicrocoeliidae) are trematodes that presumably use ants as intermediate hosts. It is assumed that howler monkeys are infected with these parasites by inadvertently consuming ants present on leaves or fruits (Kowalzik, Pavelka, Kutz, & Behie, ), but it remains unclear whether these parasites have detrimental effects on howler health (Pastor‐Nieto, ). Our study suggests that the endocrine changes experienced by female howlers during an energetically demanding reproductive phase (i.e., early lactation) are an additional factor that increases susceptibility to C. biliophilus infections.…”