Heat Inactivation Rates of Botulinum Toxins A, B, E and F in Some Foods and Buffers

Woodburn, Margy; Somers, Eileen B.; Rodriguez, Jennifer; Schantz, Edward J.

doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.1979.tb09110.x

Cited by 25 publications

(10 citation statements)

References 12 publications

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“…These results are also in accordance with the findings of an earlier study that applied the same methodology of thermal treatment and measuring ALP activity when investigating the effect of pasteurization on herpes virus infectivity in milk (4). Retrospectively, it is not clear whether the classical work cited above (5,36,42) is as well defined as our current work with respect to the heat transfer applied, the proven comparability to an industrial process, and the toxin preparations used (neurotoxin or toxin complexes and purity of the material).…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 80%

“…Later, Bradshaw et al (in 1979) showed that BoNT/A and BoNT/B were more heat stable in beef and mushroom patties than in a phosphate buffer at the same pH (5). Woodburn et al (in 1979) also observed increased heat stability of BoNT/A when 1% gelatin was added to a phosphate buffer (42). Recently, it has been shown that the molten-globule-like character of BoNT and its interaction with NAPs are responsible for variations in physical stability at different pH values (6,7).…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 93%

“…It garnered considerable interest among the scientific community, politicians, and intelligence organizations (41). Referring to experiments in which the toxic activity of BoNT in different foodstuffs, but not milk specifically, was determined after heat treatment (42), they based their calculation on roughly 70% thermal inactivation of BoNT during pasteurization, leading to Ͼ10 4 fatalities after the release of 1 g BoNT into raw milk prior to industrial pasteurization. As the scenario was based on theoretical assumptions, it seemed crucial to us to quantify the actual inactivation rate of BoNT in raw milk in a pasteurization process similar to the standard process in the industry, as this would allow us to calculate a reliable scenario.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

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The Case of Botulinum Toxin in Milk: Experimental Data

Weingart

Schreiber

Mascher

et al. 2010

Appl Environ Microbiol

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Botulinum neurotoxin (BoNT) is the most toxic substance known to man and the causative agent of botulism. Due to its high toxicity and the availability of the producing organism Clostridium botulinum, BoNT is regarded as a potential biological warfare agent. Because of the mild pasteurization process, as well as rapid product distribution and consumption, the milk supply chain has long been considered a potential target of a bioterrorist attack. Since, to our knowledge, no empirical data on the inactivation of BoNT in milk during pasteurization are available at this time, we investigated the activities of BoNT type A (BoNT/A) and BoNT/B, as well as their respective complexes, during a laboratory-scale pasteurization process. When we monitored milk alkaline phosphatase activity, which is an industry-accepted parameter of successfully completed pasteurization, our method proved comparable to the industrial process. After heating raw milk spiked with a set amount of BoNT/A or BoNT/B or one of their respective complexes, the structural integrity of the toxin was determined by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and its functional activity by mouse bioassay. We demonstrated that standard pasteurization at 72°C for 15 s inactivates at least 99.99% of BoNT/A and BoNT/B and at least 99.5% of their respective complexes. Our results suggest that if BoNTs or their complexes were deliberately released into the milk supply chain, standard pasteurization conditions would reduce their activity much more dramatically than originally anticipated and thus lower the threat level of the widely discussed "BoNT in milk" scenario.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 80%

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 93%

mentioning

confidence: 99%

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The Case of Botulinum Toxin in Milk: Experimental Data

Weingart

Schreiber

Mascher

et al. 2010

Appl Environ Microbiol

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“…Ultrahigh-temperature (UHT) pasteurization (performed to provide extended shelf life) appears capable of completely inactivating botulinum toxin in milk, but UHT milk has not been embraced by U.S. consumers. Nonetheless, it is worthwhile to perform pasteurization studies to determine whether a more potent inactivation process can be used without compromising nutrition or taste, particularly because the inactivation rate appears to be quite sensitive to the pasteurization temperature and time in the neighborhood of the current pasteurization formula (7). Reducing the time between silo cleanings decreases the number of people poisoned in, at most, a linear manner, but more frequent cleanings would not only increase variable material and labor costs but would possibly require fixed investments in additional silos.…”

Section: Discussionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Analyzing a bioterror attack on the food supply: The case of botulinum toxin in milk

Wein

Liu

2005

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A.

303

200

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We developed a mathematical model of a cows-to-consumers supply chain associated with a single milk-processing facility that is the victim of a deliberate release of botulinum toxin. Because centralized storage and processing lead to substantial dilution of the toxin, a minimum amount of toxin is required for the release to do damage. Irreducible uncertainties regarding the dose-response curve prevent us from quantifying the minimum effective release. However, if terrorists can obtain enough toxin, and this may well be possible, then rapid distribution and consumption result in several hundred thousand poisoned individuals if detection from early symptomatics is not timely. Timely and specific in-process testing has the potential to eliminate the threat of this scenario at a cost of <1 cent per gallon and should be pursued aggressively. Investigation of improving the toxin inactivation rate of heat pasteurization without sacrificing taste or nutrition is warranted.bioterrorism ͉ mathematical modeling A mong bioterror attacks not involving genetic engineering, the three scenarios that arguably pose the greatest threats to humans are a smallpox attack, an airborne anthrax attack, and a release of botulinum toxin in cold drinks (1). The methods of dissemination in these three scenarios are, respectively, the person-to-person spread of a contagious disease, the outdoor dispersal of a highly durable and lethal agent, and the large-scale storage and production and rapid widespread distribution and consumption of beverages containing the most poisonous substance known. The first two scenarios have been the subject of recent systems modeling studies (2-5), and here we present a detailed systems analysis of the third scenario. For concreteness, we consider a release in the milk supply, which, in addition to its symbolic value as a target, is characterized by the rapid distribution of 20 billion gallons per year in the U.S.; indeed, two natural Salmonella outbreaks in the dairy industry each infected Ϸ200,000 people (6). Nonetheless, our methods are applicable to similar food products, such as fruit and vegetable juices, canned foods (e.g., processed tomato products), and perhaps grainbased and other foods possessing the bow-tie-shaped supply chain pictured in Fig. 1. The ModelThe mathematical model considers the flow of milk through a nine-stage cows-to-consumers supply chain associated with a single milk-processing facility (Fig. 1). Supporting Appendix, which is published as supporting information on the PNAS web site, contains a detailed mathematical formulation of the model, a discussion of the modeling assumptions, and the specification of parameter values, some of which are listed in Table 1. The supply-chain parameter values are representative of the California dairy industry, which produces Ͼ20% of the nation's milk (California dairy facts, www.dairyforum.org͞cdf.html, accessed on May 18, 2004). In our model, cows are milked twice daily, and the milk from each farm is picked up once per day by a 5,500-gallon truc...

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“…In contrast, botulinum toxins are inactivated within 5 min at 85° C or corresponding heat treatment of lower temperatures for longer times. 20 This review article focuses on reported temperatures and temperature histories in food preparation and processing as well as selected factors affecting these histories. Most publications report temperature data for only a few selected foods and conditions of preparation.…”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Heat transfer and temperature of foods during processing∗

Holmes

Woodburn

Davis

1981

C R C Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition

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Safety and economics concerns have accentuated an interest in energy input and consumption in the foods industry. This review article focuses on reported temperatures and temperature histories in food preparation and processing. To assist in interpreting reported data, a basic understanding of heat transfer parameters used is given. The relationships between temperature and time histories and quality effects of physical and chemical changes in foods, the production of new compounds with possible health effects, and microbiological safety are summarized. Several areas of needed research are identified.

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Heat Inactivation Rates of Botulinum Toxins A, B, E and F in Some Foods and Buffers

Cited by 25 publications

References 12 publications

The Case of Botulinum Toxin in Milk: Experimental Data

The Case of Botulinum Toxin in Milk: Experimental Data

Analyzing a bioterror attack on the food supply: The case of botulinum toxin in milk

Heat transfer and temperature of foods during processing∗

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