Historical and Technical Notes on Aqueducts from Prehistoric to Medieval Times

Abstract

Abstract:The aim of this paper is to present the evolution of aqueduct technologies through the millennia, from prehistoric to medieval times. These hydraulic works were used by several civilizations to collect water from springs and to transport it to settlements, sanctuaries and other targets. Several civilizations, in China and the Americas, developed water transport systems independently, and brought these to high levels of sophistication. For the Mediterranean civilizations, one of the salient characteristics of cultural development, since the Minoan Era (ca. 3200-1100 BC), is the architectural and hydraulic function of aqueducts used for the water supply in palaces and other settlements. The 1997Minoan hydrologists and engineers were aware of some of the basic principles of water sciences and the construction and operation of aqueducts. These technologies were further developed by subsequent civilizations. Advanced aqueducts were constructed by the Hellenes and, especially, by the Romans, who dramatically increased the application scale of these structures, in order to provide the extended quantities of water necessary for the Roman lifestyle of frequent bathing. The ancient practices and techniques were not improved but survived through Byzantine and early medieval times. Later, the Ottomans adapted older techniques, reintroducing large-scale aqueducts to supply their emerging towns with adequate water for religious and social needs. The scientific approach to engineering matters during the Renaissance further improved aqueduct technology. Some of these improvements were apparently also implemented in Ottoman waterworks. Finally the industrial revolution established mechanized techniques in water acquisition. Water is a common need of mankind, and several ancient civilizations developed simple but practical techniques from which we can still learn. Their experience and knowledge could still play an important role for sustainable water supply, presently and in future, both in developed and developing countries.

Urban Evolution: The Role of Water

“…Urban evolution was initially controlled by underlying geologic and overlying geomorphic frameworks, in addition to climate [64]. In most cities, some combination of the geology and geomorphology, hydrology, and soils influenced where people settled, built homes and roadways, farmed, and eventually built water supply and wastewater conveyance systems [7,65,66]. As engineering and construction advanced, these geologic and geomorphic frameworks became significantly altered or less constraining over time [7,65,66].…”

“…The study of urban socioecological systems has been recognized to be important [16,135], and the shifting history of human interactions with water in cities can offer further insight into urban evolution [7,134,136]. During the Anthropocene, humans are increasingly becoming ecological engineers making choices regarding the structure of urban waters (e.g., green infrastructure and stormwater management) [79], which influence ecosystem functions and evolving hydrologic pathways for water and contaminants [22,23].…”

“…In most cities, some combination of the geology and geomorphology, hydrology, and soils influenced where people settled, built homes and roadways, farmed, and eventually built water supply and wastewater conveyance systems [7,65,66]. As engineering and construction advanced, these geologic and geomorphic frameworks became significantly altered or less constraining over time [7,65,66]. In addition to earth sciences, engineering can contribute to urban evolutionary concepts related to technological innovation and how ecosystem services and functions evolve across the life cycle of urban infrastructure [67].…”

“…Over recorded history, water has driven evolution of the structure, function, and services of cities [6,7,11,12]. For example, most industrial cities were originally located near water for transportation, power, and trade [11,13].…”

“…Adaptation to environmental changes including water scarcity and floods have been recognized as critical for the survival of human settlements over time [5,6]. For example, recorded history has been characterized by the rise and fall of empires such as Rome due to periods of rapid urbanization and water and food shortages for urban populations [6][7][8]. Understanding the evolution of how humans have interacted with urban waters is important for guiding innovations for future water management [9].…”