Historical geographic dispersal of the golden snub‐nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) and the influence of climatic oscillations

Abstract

Current understanding of historic climate oscillations that have occurred over the past few million years has modified scientific views on evolution. Major climatic events have caused local and global extinction of plants and animals and have impacted the spatial distribution of many species. The endangered golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) currently inhabits three isolated regions of China: the Sichuan and Gansu provinces (SG), the Qinling Mountains in Shaanxi province (QL), and the Shennongjia Forestry District in Hubei province (SNJ). However, considerable uncertainty still exists about their historical dispersal routes under the influence of environment change. To date, two dispersal routes have been proposed: (1) the QL and SNJ populations originated from the SG population; and (2) the SG population recolonized from the QL and SNJ populations. We used the mitochondrial DNA complete control region to perform statistical assessments of the relative probability of alternative migration scenarios and the role of environmental change on the geographic dispersal of Rhinopithecus roxellana. Thirty haplotypes were identified from the three geographic regions and a high degree of genetic structure was observed. The most recent common ancestor among the mitochondrial DNA haplotypes was estimated to live around 0.47-1.88 million years ago and five notable haplotype clusters were found. Phylogenetic analysis and historical gene flow estimates suggested that the QL and SNJ populations originated from the SG population, with at least two dispersal events from the SG population occurring during the Pleistocene (1.17±0.70 and 0.53±0.30 Ma). Composite dispersal history of the golden snub-nosed monkey can be explained by both environmental change inducing global climate change and the influence of the Tibetan Plateau uplift. Such range shifts involved considerable demographic changes, as revealed in the dramatic decreases in population size during the last 25,000 years.

Balancing selection and genetic drift at major histocompatibility complex class II genes in isolated populations of golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana)

“…However, there was also a small Δ K peak at K = 5 (Δ K = 23.59), and results showed that in addition to the divergence between SG and QL, there was also divergence within the SG and QL populations. These results agree with earlier studies, where the differences within the SG and QL populations resulted from their different origins and habitat fragmentation [33,34]. The clear population structure observed in microsatellites was not found at either the DQA1 locus or the DQB1 locus (Additional file 3: Figure S1).…”

Satellite telemetry and social modeling offer new insights into the origin of primate multilevel societies

“…Phylogenetic reconstructions based on mitochondrial DNA data and paleobiogeography indicate that Rhinopithecus diverged from the other genera of odd-nosed monkeys during the late Miocene, and then differentiated into five species48. This appears to have begun ~2 million years ago in response to oscillations in paleoclimate associated with the uplifting of the Tibetan Plateau, a decrease in temperature and rainfall, a reduction in broadleaf and evergreen forest habitats, glacial expansion and geographical barriers that restricted gene flow across populations495051. Although the precise factors that led to the formation of a multilevel society remain unclear, increased environmental heterogeneity and forest fragmentation during periods of glacial maximum may have resulted in feeding sites that were hyper-dispersed across the landscape52.…”

MHC II DRB variation and trans-species polymorphism in the golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana)

“…Beyond genetic drift, a foundation event may have also contributed to the low genetic diversity present in the SNJ population. Among the three populations, the SG population is predicted to be the ancestral population, with the SNJ population arising from the QL population [57]. Microsatellites (unpublished data) and mitochondrial data [57] suggested little gene flow between SNJ and the other two populations.…”

“…Among the three populations, the SG population is predicted to be the ancestral population, with the SNJ population arising from the QL population [57]. Microsatellites (unpublished data) and mitochondrial data [57] suggested little gene flow between SNJ and the other two populations. This may indicate that the genetic variation in the SNJ population was reduced compared with the other populations either at its foundation or soon after [52].…”