Housing environment and mental health of Europeans during the COVID-19 pandemic: a cross-country comparison

Abstract

Many studies have investigated the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on mental health. Throughout the pandemic, time spent at home increased to a great extent due to restrictive measures. Here we set out to investigate the relationship between housing conditions and the mental health of populations across European countries. We analyzed survey data collected during spring 2020 from 69,136 individuals from four cohorts from Denmark, France, and the UK. The investigated housing conditions included household density, composition, and crowding, access to outdoor facilities, dwelling type, and urbanicity. The outcomes were loneliness, anxiety, and life satisfaction. Logistic regression models were used, and results were pooled using random-effects meta-analysis. In the meta-analysis, living alone was associated with higher levels of loneliness (OR = 3.08, 95% CI 1.87–5.07), and lower life satisfaction (OR = 1.27, 95% CI 1.05–0.55), compared to living with others. Not having access to an outdoor space and household crowding were suggestively associated with worse outcomes. Living in crowded households, living alone, or lacking access to outdoor facilities may be particularly important in contributing to poor mental health during a lockdown. Addressing the observed fundamental issues related to housing conditions within society will likely have positive effects in reducing social inequalities, as well as improving preparedness for future pandemics.

COVID-19 Related Shifts in Social Interaction, Connection, and Cohesion Impact Psychosocial Health: Longitudinal Qualitative Findings from COVID-19 Treatment Trial Engaged Participants

“…Amid the pandemic, the United States (US) has observed an estimated 29.2% to 35.0% increase in the prevalence of major depressive disorder, and an estimated 25.6% to 28.8% increase in the prevalence of anxiety disorders [ 1 ]. The pandemic’s burden on mental health is associated with multiple intersecting factors, including economic decline resulting in increased job insecurity [ 3 , 4 ]; housing precarity [ 5 , 6 ]; childcare disruptions and school closures [ 7 , 8 , 9 ]; increased risk of interpersonal violence [ 10 , 11 ]; and general disruption to daily routines [ 12 ]. Furthermore, the burden of COVID-19 disease, and its psychosocial sequelae, has disproportionately impacted certain populations, such as children and youth [ 12 , 13 ], cisgender women [ 14 , 15 , 16 ], minoritized communities [ 17 , 18 ], people who use drugs [ 19 ], older adults [ 20 , 21 ], people with disabilities [ 22 , 23 ], and LGBTQIA+ individuals [ 24 , 25 , 26 , 27 ].…”

Pandemic babies? Fertility in the aftermath of the first COVID-19 wave across European regions

“…The question of which set of conditions produced this pattern remains to be addressed by future research. Changes in living conditions and quality of life during lockdowns -for instance due to crowded housing, social isolation, or economic uncertainty -were magnified in urban centers (Greteman et al, 2022.;Keller et al, 2022). Selective out-migration of couples planning or expecting a child may also have played a role.…”

“…The first COVID-19 pandemic wave triggered stringent lockdowns, including 'stay-at-home' orders in many countries (Hale et al 2020). Yet, these strict pandemic containment measures have caused greater disruptions to daily lives, mental health, and physical activity among those living in urban centers, those without access to a green space, and individuals living in crowded housing (Greteman et al, 2022;Keller et al, 2022). Home confinement may have led to the postponement of childbearing particularly among couples living in densely populated urban centers.…”

Can Homes Affect Well-Being? A Scoping Review among Housing Conditions, Indoor Environmental Quality, and Mental Health Outcomes

“…At the same time, they have been detrimental to the quality of life, both physical and mental. Indeed, throughout the pandemic and related lockdowns, time spent at home increased to a great extent [ 3 ].…”

“…Now it is well-known that humans spend over 85% of their time in indoor settings. In fact, the COVID-19 transformed the daily lives of millions of people [ 3 ] during its worst outbreaks. It also left permanent changes in our way of living, working, studying, interacting, etc.…”