“…Given the focus on multimedia learning, a discussion of research on the effects of signaling or cueing in learning materials that are solely text-based and do not include explanatory pictures, such as expository text (e.g., Loman & Mayer, 1983;, 1996Lorch, Lorch, & Klusewitz, 1995;Mayer, Dyck, & Cook, 1984;Sung & Mayer, 2012), lectures (e.g., Scerbo, Warm, Dember, & Grasha, 1992;Titsworth & Kiewra, 2004), matrices (e.g., Jairam, Kiewra, Kauffman, & Zhao, 2012), or Web menus (e.g., Rouet, Ros, Goumi, Macedo-Rouet, & Dinet, 2011), or learning materials that are solely picture-based and do not include explanatory text, such as animations (e.g., Amadieu, Mariné, & Laimay, 2011;Boucheix & Lowe, 2010;Boucheix, Lowe, Putri, & Groff, 2013;de Koning, Tabbers, Rikers, & Paas, 2007, 2010aFischer & Schwan, 2010;Lowe & Boucheix, 2011) or graphs (e.g., Mautone & Mayer, 2007;Shah, Mayer, & Hegarty, 1999), fall outside the scope of this chapter. Moreover, this chapter does not focus on social cues, such as gaze direction or gestures that may be provided by instructors or animated pedagogical agents in video/animated lessons, as these are reviewed in Chapters 23 and 38.…”