Human respiratory viral infections: Current status and future prospects of nanotechnology-based approaches for prophylaxis and treatment

Zinc associated nanomaterials and their intervention in emerging respiratory viruses: Journey to the field of biomedicine and biomaterials

“…Nevertheless, most available antiviral agents exhibit disadvantages, such as low solubility, minor stability, high potential of drug-drug interaction, and high toxicity, which should be further improved. Therefore, this clearly remarks the need for further research in this respective area [7] , [140] . Nanomedicine has come to be one of the most promising technologies because of its ability to combat viral infections facing the restrictions of conventional therapies along with nanoformulations, including solid lipid NPs, polymeric NPs, liposomes, dendrimers, micelles, selfassembled nanoemulsions, and cyclodextrins [7] , [56] .…”

“…Nanomedicine has come to be one of the most promising technologies because of its ability to combat viral infections facing the restrictions of conventional therapies along with nanoformulations, including solid lipid NPs, polymeric NPs, liposomes, dendrimers, micelles, selfassembled nanoemulsions, and cyclodextrins [7] , [56] . Metallic NPs exhibit inherent antiviral activity and are extensively studied for this purpose; among them, Zn has been found efficacious against respiratory infection-causing viruses [7] . The role of Zn-associated compounds, Zn conjugates, and Zn ionophores have been studied against respiratory viruses [142] , [143] , [144] .…”

“…This recent coronavirus pandemic has shown promising results, seeking complementary therapy to support prevention, treatment, and recovery. In this context, a few studies have investigated the properties of metal NPs to augment their selectivity and efficacy against respiratory viruses since these NPs can bind with the viral proteins (via Van der Waals forces) and can help to conduce its inactivation [7] , [209] . Correspondingly, in double-stranded RNA viruses, Ag NPs have shown that after interaction with the viral genome, they inhibit viral replication; likewise, Cu NPs inhibit virus-cell binding and attachment and destroy the viral genome.…”

“…The influenza viruses can be divided into four genera A, B, C, and D, where the principal human infection occurs due to the A and B subtypes. It is also an enveloped virus surrounded by hemagglutinin and neuraminidase glycoproteins, being the first one responsible for host cell recognition [7] . In the case of Human rhinovirus (HRVs), its size is smaller (∼30 nm) and, unlike the coronavirus, it has a non-enveloped structure and icosahedral morphology ( Fig.…”

Endothelial Dysfunction through Oxidatively Generated Epigenetic Mark in Respiratory Viral Infections

“…The descriptions of these three viruses linked to dysfunction of the endothelial cells is not meant to be exhaustive, but instead provides examples of the severity of the threat for morbidity or loss of life that is associated with infections that compromise the function of the endothelial cells and can lead to dysregulation of the barrier function. We note that human rhinoviruses, parainfluenza viruses, metapneumovirus, respiratory adenovirus, bocaviruses, coronaviruses, middle-east respiratory syndrome virus (MERS), and severe acute respiratory syndrome virus (SARS) are also accountable for over three million deaths worldwide and are responsible for multiple outbreaks in recent times [40].…”